It is impossible to overstate the influence of the Book of Genesis on Jewish and Christian theology, literature, art, music, and culture. There are countless examples of that influence that could be cited. The following entries are simply a sampling of a much larger discussion.
AbrahamGod promised that Abraham would become the father of a great nation, receive a land, and bring blessing to all nations. More in the New Testament
Abraham is mentioned a number of times in the New Testament, including as an ancestor of JesusJesus is the Messiah whose life, death, and resurrection are God's saving act for humanity. More (MatthewA tax collector who became one of Jesus' 12 disciples. More 1:1, 17), a recipient of God’s promises (LukeThe "beloved physician" and companion of Paul. More 1:55, 73), and the figure who will greet the faithful in the next life (Luke 16:19-31). But another prominent example of the influence of Abraham’s story in the New Testament is how he is used by two New Testament writers to say different things about justification.
The Book of James uses the story of the sacrificeSacrifice is commonly understood as the practice of offering or giving up something as a sign of worship, commitment, or obedience. In the Old Testament grain, wine, or animals are used as sacrifice. In some New Testament writings Jesus' death on the cross as the... More of IsaacSon born to Abraham and Sarah in fulfillment of God's promise. More in Genesis 22 to say that believers are justified by works, and not by faith alone: “Was not our ancestor Abraham justified by works when he offered his son Isaac on the altar?” (James 2:21). He goes on to write, “Thus the scripture was fulfilled that says, ‘Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness,’ and he was called the friend of God” (James 2:23).
The same verse from Genesis that James quotes, Genesis 15:6, is used by PaulThe Apostle Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was the author of several New Testament letters and the founder of many Christian communities. More to say something quite different about justification: “Just as Abraham ‘believed God, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness,’ so, you see, those who believe are the descendants of Abraham” (Galatians 3:6-7). Likewise, Paul writes in Romans 4:1-5:
What then are we to say was gained by Abraham, our ancestor according to the flesh? For if Abraham was justified by works, he has something to boast about, but not before God. For what does the scripture say? “Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness.” Now to one who works, wages are not reckoned as a gift but as something due. But to one who does not work but trusts him who justifies the ungodly, such faith is reckoned as righteousness.
While Paul and James do not agree with each other about the interpretation of Genesis 15:6, it must be remembered that they are writing about two different situations. James writes to those who claim to have faith but do not care for the poor in their midst, and so he argues that faith, if it is not lived out in works, is dead. Paul writes to those who argue that GentileA gentile is anyone who is not Jewish. The term, which is derived from words that the Bible uses to denote the "nations" of the world, reflects beliefs that God had designated Israel as a nation that would be distinct from others, and a blessing... More believers must be circumcised before they can become Christians, and Paul rejects that argument vehemently. If Abraham was justified by faith (in Genesis 15) before he was circumcised (in Genesis 17), then the same must be true of Gentile believers.
In any case, Abraham plays a prominent role in the New Testament, as he is remembered by New Testament writers for his faith, for his actions, and for the promises made to him by God.
Abraham, IshmaelThe son of Abraham and the Egyptian woman Hagar. More, and Islam
It is important to note that Abraham is revered as the father of faith not only by Jews and Christians, but also by Muslims. Muslims trace their ancestry to Abraham through Ishmael, son of HagarSarah's maidservant, Abraham's concubine, Ishamel's mother. More and Abraham, and the Quran includes many stories about Abraham.
According to one of those stories, clarified by later Islamic tradition, the son that is nearly sacrificed by Abraham is Ishmael, not Isaac, and the near-sacrifice takes place in the vicinity of Mecca, not Mount Moriah (which is identified as the TempleThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged... More Mount in Jerusalem in 2 Chronicles 3:1). Unlike Isaac, Ishmael understands from the beginning that he is the sacrifice demanded of Abraham by God and he willingly submits. Like Isaac, however, Ishmael is spared in the end from being sacrificed.
The story of the sacrifice of Ishmael is commemorated by Muslims every year in the festival of Eid al-Adha, literally “Feast of the Sacrifice,” celebrated during the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
The Binding of Isaac: Poetry
In Genesis 22, God tests Abraham, instructing him to take his son Isaac to Mount Moriah and offer him there as a burnt offering. This difficult story is called the “sacrifice of Isaac” by Christians and the “binding of Isaac” by Jews, based on Genesis 22:9, where Abraham binds his son on the altar. In Hebrew, the word for “binding” is “akedah,” hence, the story is called by Jews “the Akedah.”
Many artists and writers have interpreted this story through the centuries. In particular, the Akedah inspired 20th century poets who lived in the shadow of two world wars and the Holocaust. To take just one example, Wilfred Owen (1893-1918), a British soldier and poet who was killed in action one week before the end of World War I, compared the story of the Akedah to the sacrifices of his generation. He describes the biblical story up to the point of the angel telling Abraham not to harm his son:
Then Abram bound the youth with belts and straps,
And builded parapets the trenches there,
And stretched forth the knife to slay his son.
When lo! an angel called him out of heaven,
Saying, Lay not thy hand upon the lad,
Neither do anything to him. Behold,
A ram, caught in a thicket by its horns;
Offer the Ram of Pride instead of him.But the old man would not so, but slew his son,
And half the seed of Europe, one by one.
(Wilfred Owen, “The Parable of the Young Man and the Old”)
The rich tradition of modern Hebrew poetry includes many examples of works referencing the Akedah. Chaim Gouri (1923-2018), born in Tel Aviv, served in the armed forces before and during the Arab/Israeli War (or War of Independence) of 1948, when the state of Israel was established. After the war, he became a journalist, documentary filmmaker, and poet. His 1960 poem, “Heritage” (translated from the Hebrew) speaks of Abraham as an “old man,” who hands down to the next generation the scars of conflict:
Isaac, as the story goes, was not
sacrificed. He lived for many years, saw
what pleasure had to offer, until his
eyesight dimmed.
But he bequeathed that hour to his
offspring. They are born with a knife in
their hearts.
Another poet, T. Carmi (1925-1994), born in New York City, served in the Israeli military in 1948 and became a leading Israeli poet. His poem, “The Actions of the Fathers,” (translated from the Hebrew) chides Abraham for his obedience to God’s command:
And after the Akedah?
Then the most difficult test began.
Abraham took his son to the camel races
Hiked with him from the Euphrates to the Nile,
Swam by his side, watching him like a hawk
In the waters of Eilat. And when they returned home,
He slaughtered flocks and herds aplenty,
All tender and good,
Sweet scent of songs and of muscle and meat
And guests in good graces come in from afar.
Isaac ate and ate, ate –
And was silent.
Abraham bought his wife a fur coat
And golden jewelry
He installed emergency lighting in their tent
He brought her boots in style from a shop on the Nile
Hashish from Tarshish,
Cinnamon from Lebanon.
SarahAbraham's wife and mother of Isaac. More, who grew old overnight,
Never took off her mourning clothes.
Abraham prayed to his God morning and evening,
He hung tzedakah boxes on all the tamarisk trees,
Studied his TorahThe Torah is the law of Moses, also known as the first five books of the Bible. To many the Torah is a combination of history, theology, and a legal or ritual guide. More night and day,
Fasted,
And gave room and board to angels for almost no fee.
The voice from on high disappeared.
And the voice within him
(The only one left)
Said: Yes, you went
From your land, from your homeland, the land of your father,
And now, in the end, from yourself.
The story of the Akedah – with its themes of violence, sacrifice, and obedience – continues to speak to new generations of artists and poets, especially those who live through times of war and experience intergenerational trauma.
Ecology and Genesis
In an influential 1967 article in the journal Science, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” historian Lynn White laid much of the blame for ecological crises at the foot of Judeo-Christian tradition. He singled out for particular criticism the creationCreation, in biblical terms, is the universe as we know or perceive it. Genesis says that in the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. In the book of Revelation (which speaks of end times) the author declares that God created all things and... More accounts of Genesis 1-3, writing of them: “God planned all of this [creation] explicitly for man’s benefit and rule: no item in the physical creation had any purpose save to serve man’s purposes. And, although man’s body is made of clay, he is not simply part of nature: he is made in God’s image. Especially in its Western form, Christianity is the most anthropocentric religion the world has seen.”
While White’s essay has been rightly criticized, it is true that the command of God in Genesis 1:28 to humanity – to “fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth” – has been used, in some times and places, as justification for the exploitation of the natural world. This is a distorted and dangerous interpretation of the text.
Most modern scholars read the Genesis creation accounts quite differently, following the example of Christian figures like Saint Francis of Assisi. Such interpretations demonstrate that Genesis contains great resources for a theological ethic of care for creation. For instance, paying attention to the context of Genesis 1:28 shows us that “dominion” does not mean “domination.” If we are created in the image of GodAccording to the book of Genesis, humans were created in the likeness, or the image, of God. The phrase is generally taken to refer to the uprightness and dignity of human nature. Because of disobedience the image of God has been corrupted or, some say,... More (Genesis 1:26-27), then surely we are to “have dominion” as God does, not destroying or exploiting the natural world, but working to ensure that all life has the means to thrive.
Another example: Genesis 2:15 defines humanity’s first vocation as follows: “The LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it.” The Hebrew verb translated “till” (avad) also means “to work” or even “to serve.” It is the same word used in JoshuaThe successor of Moses, Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan. More 24:15: “choose this day whom you will serve … but as for me and my householdA household is a living unit comprised of all the persons who live in one house. A household would embrace all the members of a family, including servants and slaves. In the book of Acts, stories are told of various persons and their households, like... More, we will serve the Lord.” And the verb “keep” (shamar) shows up in many famous passages: “The Lord bless you and keep you” (Numbers 6:24). “The Lord will keep you from all evil;/ he will keep your life./ The Lord will keep your going out and your coming in/ from this time on and forevermore” (PsalmA psalm is a song of praise. In the Old Testament 150 psalms comprise the psalter, although some of the psalms are laments and thanksgivings. In the New Testament early Christians gathered to sing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. More 121:7-8).
In other words, humanity is called to tend, care for, and guard creation, and perhaps even serve it, not in the sense of worshiping the natural world, but in the sense of working with it in such a way that it can continue to sustain life, the life of humans and the life of all of God’s creatures.
Scripture tells us that the God of creation, incarnationIncarnation literally means "embodied in flesh." It is a Christian doctrine, based on the witness in John's Gospel, that God's Word was made flesh in the person of Jesus Christ. The Apostles' and Nicene Creeds confess the central importance of the incarnation of Jesus. More, and resurrection made this world and all that is in it. The biblical witness teaches us to care for creation. And Genesis, in particular, teaches us that God wills life, abundant life, not only for human beings but for all of the creatures – animals, plants, earth, water, air – that God made and declared “very good” (Genesis 1:31).
Entertaining Angels Unaware
The New Testament Book of Hebrews is replete with references to Old Testament stories and figures. Abraham, for instance, is mentioned 11 times in the book, held up as an exemplar of faith. Consequently, in Hebrews 13:2, when the author of Hebrews speaks of “entertaining angels without knowing it,” it seems very likely that the story being referenced is the one of Abraham offering hospitality to the three divine visitors in Genesis 18. Abraham is a generous host, running to get food for the three strangers, slaughtering and preparing the finest young calf, and then standing by as they partake of the feast. (And all this is in contrast to the violent inhospitality with which the divine visitors are met in Sodom in Genesis 19.)
The Book of Hebrews exhorts its readers to follow the example of Abraham, “Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers, for by doing that some have entertained angels without knowing it.”
A 2019 sculpture by Canadian artist TimothyThe companion on Paul's later journeys for whom two pastoral epistles are named. More Schmalz, “Angels Unawares” (from the King James Version translation of Hebrews 13:2) interprets this passage in relation to refugees and migrants. A life-size bronze sculpture, “Angels Unawares” stands in St. Peter’s Square in the Vatican and depicts a boat filled with refugees and migrants from across the world and across time. There are orthodox Jews and Syrian refugees, East Africans and Eastern Europeans, men, women, children, infants, and the elderly, standing shoulder to shoulder, looking with hope toward the future. And in the center of the crowd, rising above them all, is a pair of angel wings.
The FallThe Fall refers specifically to the disobedience of Adam and Eve when they listened to Satan rather than adhering to God's command not to eat the fruit from the tree. When people act contrary to God's will, they are said to fall from from grace... More: A Brief Discussion
The story in Genesis 3 of AdamThe first human God created. More and EveThe name of the first woman, wife of Adam. More eating the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evilThe tree of the knowledge of good and evil is another tree God set in Eden. The tree was the one from which God specifically commanded Adam and Eve not to eat. When they did, however, they not only had disobeyed God's command, but their... More has been discussed and interpreted by theologians for millennia. Called “the Fall” by many, the story has been used to explain the presence of sin and death in a world created by a good God. In this vein, Paul uses the story to compare Adam to Christ: “For just as by the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man’s obedience the many will be made righteousA righteous person is one who is ethical and faithful to God's covenant. Righteousness in the Old Testament is an attitude of God; in the New Testament it is a gift of God through grace. In the New Testament righteousness is a relationship with God... More” (Romans 5:19). “For since death came through a human being, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being; for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ” (1 Corinthians 15:21-22).
The story of the Fall has also been used, unfortunately, to blame Eve (and thereby all women) for the presence of sin, death, and evil in the world. There are numerous examples to cite, from both Jewish and Christian literature.
The Jewish apocryphal book of Ben SirachAlso known as "Sirach" or "Ecclesiasticus," this book is included in the Apocrypha. It is considered canonical by the Roman Catholic church and most Orthodox churches, but not by Protestants and Jews. It was written in the early second century BCE by a Jewish scribe... More blames Eve for sin: “From a woman sin had its beginning, and because of her we all die” (Sirach 25:24). The author of 1 Timothy writes, “I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor” (1 Timothy 2:12-14). The early church father Tertullian chastises women as the descendants of Eve: “You are the one who opened the door to the Devil. You are the one who first plucked the fruit of the forbidden tree, you are the first who deserted the divine law; you are the one who persuaded him whom the Devil was not strong enough to attack. All too easily you destroyed the image of God, namely, man” (De Cult. fem. 1.1).
This interpretation of the Fall story has led to immeasurable misogyny in the history of the church. In art, theology, and literature, Eve has often been portrayed as an evil temptress or (at best) as a gullible, weak, and foolish person.
Beginning in the 1970s, feminist biblical scholars reexamined the story of Genesis 2-3 in order to argue for a more egalitarian interpretation of Eve. Phyllis Trible, for instance, noted that the Hebrew word ‘azer, translated “helper” (or “helpmeet” – KJV) in Genesis 2:18, does not signify subordination, as it does in English: “Then the Lord God said, ‘It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a helper as his partner.’” The same word is used to describe God in Psalm 30:10 (“Hear, O Lord, and be gracious to me! / O Lord, be my helper!”) and Psalm 121:2. Thus, the hierarchy of male and female in Genesis 3:16 is a result of sin, not the original intention of God in creation: “I will greatly increase your pangs in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” This passage, in other words, is descriptive, not prescriptive.
Trible also argued that the hierarchy described in Genesis 3 is overturned in the Song of Songs, which uses the extremely rare word for “desire” in Genesis 3:16, in an obvious reference to the Eden story. The woman in Song of Songs says of her love: “I am my beloved’s, and his desire is for me” (Song 7:10, emphasis added). The Song thus redeems the Garden of Eden story. In the world of the Song of Songs, man and woman have a mutual love for one another and the garden contains no thorns or thistles.
There has been criticism of these and other feminist biblical interpretations. Within Christian evangelical circles, for instance, some biblical scholars argue instead for a “complementarian” view of men and women. In this line of interpretation, Adam was created to be the “head” of the family and Eve was to be his “helper.” Both Adam and Eve sinned, but Eve’s sin consisted of trying to take charge and thereby she took the “headship” from Adam, while Adam sinned by allowing that to happen.
Again, within evangelical circles there are scholars who argue against this complementarian view. One important organization that works for women’s equality within evangelical churches internationally is Christians for Biblical Equality. CBE takes as one of its guiding principles the argument of Paul in Galatians 3:28: “There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.” Combined with evidence of women’s leadership in Israel and in the early church, this passage serves as a strong argument for gender equality in faith communities today.
This topic, of course, could occupy many books. It is to the church’s benefit that the misogyny associated with the traditional interpretation of the “Fall” story is largely rejected now. Whatever one’s interpretation of the story of the Garden of Eden, though, it continues to exert a strong influence on Christian theology and imagination.
“Here comes this dreamer”
In Genesis 37, JacobThe son of Isaac and Rebekah, renamed Israel, became the father of the twelve tribal families. More sends Joseph to find his brothers who are pasturing their flocks near Shechem. The brothers see him from a distance. Already angry at Joseph because of the dreamsDreams often have potency and predictive power in the Bible, for they were seen as messages from God. In the Old Testament Joseph dreamed about the seven fat and lean years. In the New Testament Joseph dreamed about escaping to Egypt with Mary and Jesus. More he has shared with them – dreams in which they bow down to him – they plot against him:
They saw him from a distance, and before he came near to them, they conspired to kill him. They said to one another, “Here comes this dreamer. Come now, let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits; then we shall say that a wild animal has devoured him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams” (Genesis 37:18-20).
The National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis, Tennessee, is located at the former Lorraine Motel, where the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on April 4, 1968. In the courtyard of the motel, beneath the balcony where Dr. King was shot, stands a memorial plaque inscribed in part with this quotation from Genesis 37: “They said one to another, ‘Behold, here cometh the dreamer… Let us slay him…and we shall see what will become of his dreams.’”
The plaque, of course, refers not primarily to this story in Genesis, but to Martin Luther King’s “I have a Dream” speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., during the March on Washington in 1963.
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal….
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.
I have a dream that one day down in Alabama . . . little Black boys and Black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today.
The Rev. SamuelThe judge who anointed the first two kings of Israel. More “Billy” Kyles, a friend of Dr. King’s, was one of the people standing with him on the motel balcony when he was shot. Years later, Kyles said of King and of the civil rights victories that were won even after King’s death, “Yes, you can kill the dreamer. Absolutely, you can kill the dreamer. But you cannot kill the dream.”
Imago Dei: A Brief Discussion
Genesis 1:26-27 asserts that God made human beings in God’s own image:
Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.’
So God created humankind in his image,
in the image of God he created them;
male and female he created them.
The assertion that humanity is made in God’s image is repeated in Genesis 9:6 and is alluded to in the New Testament in several places, but especially in reference to Christ (cf. James 3:9; 2 Corinthians 4:4; Colossians 1:15; Hebrews 1:3). This assertion has also given rise to the theological concept of the imago Dei (Latin for “image of God”).
What does it mean that humanity is made in the image of God? Christian theologians over the centuries – including Origen, Irenaeus, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, Karl Barth, and many others – have debated the answer to that question. At the risk of oversimplifying a complex argument, it may be helpful to outline three basic approaches to the concept of imago Dei in the history of Christian thought. The first approach asserts that the doctrine of imago Dei means that human beings share certain characteristics with God. Different theologians emphasize different characteristics such as creativity, morality, free will, and rational thought. The second approach sees the imago Dei as being lived out primarily in human relationships with God and with one another. The third approach understands the concept of imago Dei to mean that God has entrusted human beings with certain roles or functions in order to act on God’s behalf in creation.
These three approaches to the doctrine of imago Dei are not mutually exclusive; neither are they exhaustive of the interpretive possibilities. The doctrine of imago Dei is rich with possibilities. One such interpretation lends itself to the concept of universal human rights. If every single person is made in the image of God, then every single person has an inherent dignity and worth no matter their age, race, ethnicity, gender, lifestyle, political beliefs, nationality, etc. Thus, the concept of imago Dei undergirds a significant number of historical and contemporary discussions of human rights. (For a helpful discussion of imago Dei as a foundation for human rights, see this paper.)
In the beginning
The first verse of Genesis is often translated, “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.” The Gospel of John echoes this language: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (John 1:1). John links his story of Jesus as the Word-made-flesh with the creation account of Genesis. The Word was “in the beginning,” at the dawn of creation. John is also probably drawing from Proverbs 8:22, where WisdomWisdom encompasses the qualities of experience, knowledge, and good judgment. The Old Testament book of Proverbs, which sometimes invokes a Woman as the personification of Wisdom, is a collection of aphorisms and moral teachings. Along with other biblical passages, it teaches, "The fear of the... More says of herself: “The Lord created me at the beginning of his work, the first of his acts of long ago.”
Similarly, just as God’s first command in the beginning was “Let there be light” (Genesis 1:3), so according to John, the Word who was from the beginning, Jesus the Christ, is “the light of all people. The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not overcome it” (John 1:4-5).
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat
The story of Joseph in Genesis 37-50 was the inspiration behind a 1974 musical by Tim Rice and AndrewAndrew was a fisherman in Galilee who, along with his brother Simon Peter, was called by Jesus to follow him. More Lloyd Webber, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. (The earliest short version of the musical was written and performed in 1968.) This biblically based musical has been performed countless times over the years, including in the West End and on Broadway. A 1999 direct-to-video film of the musical starred Donny Osmond.
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat follows the story of Joseph from his teenage years as the favorite son of his father Jacob, through the betrayal of his brothers and the ups and downs of his life in Egypt, to his eventual reunion and reconciliation with his brothers and father. The biblical tale of Joseph is a carefully constructed story told with a great deal of narrative artistry. With all its dramatic twists and turns, the biblical story makes for a compelling musical, one that has stayed popular with audiences for decades.
Paradise Lost
One of the most famous and influential literary interpretations of Genesis 2-3 is John Milton’s Paradise Lost. Published first in 1667, Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse. It retells the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden but amplifies the story a great deal; in part by imagining conversations and battles in heaven and in hell, as well as on earth. The conflict in Paradise Lost is primarily between Satan and the Son. Satan is defiant, proud, deceitful, and reckless, while the Son exhibits self-sacrificial love for humanity. Milton, like his classical forebears, begins his poem by invoking a heavenly Muse; in this case, the Holy Spirit:
And chiefly Thou O Spirit, that dost prefer
Before all Temples th’ upright heart and pure,
Instruct me, for Thou know’st; Thou from the first
Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread
Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss
And mad’st it pregnant: What in me is dark
Illumin, what is low raise and support;
That to the highth of this great Argument
I may assert Eternal Providence,
And justifie the wayes of God to men. (I:17-26)
Though Paradise Lost takes as its primary subject matter the story of the Garden of Eden in Genesis 2-3, the invocation of the Holy Spirit draws on the image of Genesis 1:2: “And the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters” (KJV).
Paradise Lost was inspired in part by classical epic poems like Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey and Virgil’s The Aeneid, and it in turn inspired other works of art, including Joseph Haydn’s oratorio The Creation (1798). Milton published another, much shorter poem called Paradise Regained in 1671. This latter work dramatized the temptations of Jesus in the wilderness (as told in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke), borrowing elements from the Book of Job to tell the story.
The Red Tent
The difficult story of the rape of DinahDinah was the daughter of Jacob by Leah. More in Genesis 34 inspired a 1997 novel called The Red Tent, by Anita Diamant. Dinah is the narrator in the novel, a striking reversal of the perspective of the biblical account, which does not give Dinah a voice. In The Red Tent, Dinah tells her own story and that of the women around her, especially her mother LeahLaban's oldest daughter and Jacob's first wife. More but also Jacob’s other wives – RachelLaban's younger daughter and Jacob's second wife. More, Leah’s sister, and the concubines BilhahOne of the concunbines of Jacob. More and ZilpahZilpah was Leah's servant and one of Jacob's concubines. More.
The novel depicts the relationship between Dinah and Shechem as a relationship of love, not of sexual violence. When Dinah’s brothers Simeon and LeviSon of Jacob and Leah, brother to Reuben, Simeon, and Dinah. More murder Shechem and his kin, Dinah curses her father and brothers and settles in Egypt, where she bears a son. Eventually, she reunites with her brother, Joseph, who has become vizier of Egypt, and she travels with him to visit her estranged family. She learns there that while the men have all but forgotten her, the women of the family have continued to tell her story.
With its depiction of women’s lives and women’s relationships in a culture dominated by men, Diamant’s novel became a bestseller and was adapted into a television miniseries in 2014.
The Rublev Icon
The three divine beings who visit Abraham and Sarah in Genesis 18 to announce the birth of Isaac have been interpreted by Christians from earliest times as a manifestation of the Trinity. One of the most well-known of these Trinitarian interpretations of the story is the 15th-century icon by the Russian painter Andrei Rublev, “Trinity.”
The icon depicts three divine beings gathered around a table. The visitors have halos and wings. Abraham and Sarah are nowhere in sight, though there is a tree in the background to signify the oaks of Mamre where the visitation took place. The tree perhaps also symbolizes the Tree of LifeIn the Garden of Eden, the tree of life is the tree that confers immortality. Adam and Eve, because of their disobedience, lost access to the fruits of the garden. In the book of Revelation the tree of life appears again; this time it is... More and the cross, since it is visible behind the shoulder of the figure representing the Son. On the table is a large gold chalice holding a small calf’s head or (according to some interpreters) that of a lamb. The chalice is a Eucharistic symbol which recalls both the young calf that Abraham feeds his visitors and also the Lamb of God, sacrificed for the sins of the world.
The three figures are alike in appearance and size and dress, though their robes are of differing colors. The Son and the Holy Spirit incline toward the Father as they gaze at one another in mutual loving relationship.
As with all icons, the Rublev icon invites the viewer into its symbolism. In this icon in particular, Rublev invites viewers to contemplate the visitation to Abraham and Sarah as well as the mysteryA mystery is something secret, hidden and not perceived by ordinary means. In the book of Daniel a significant mystery is revealed through divine revelation (Daniel 2); Paul speaks of a mystery of God in Romans 11 and again in Ephesians 3. In speaking of... More of the Trinity.
Sistine Chapel
Perhaps the most famous artistic depiction of the creation stories in Genesis is Michelangelo’s “Creation of Adam.” In the painting, God the Creator, surrounded by angelic figures, reaches down from heaven to touch the outstretched finger of Adam, who is reclining on a green hillside on earth. The artist captures the moment right before their two fingers touch. The scene depicts the creation story of Genesis 2, as the next painting shows God creating Eve out of Adam’s side. Nevertheless, the heroic figures of God and Adam, figures that resemble one another, remind the viewer of the statement in Genesis 1:27 that humanity is made in God’s image.
This monumental and influential work is part of a series of frescoes painted by Michelangelo from 1508 to 1512 on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. Michelangelo was acting on a commission by Pope Julius II. The frescoes that take pride of place in the center of the ceiling, including “Creation of Adam,” depict nine scenes from the book of Genesis, from the creation of light in Genesis 1 to the story of NoahBuilt the ark in which his family and the animals were saved from a flood. More in Genesis 6-9. These foundational stories form the central theme of Michelangelo’s monumental work.
Tithing
Tithing is the practice of giving away a certain percentage of one’s income, usually ten percent. The word is often used to speak of supporting one’s church or synagogueA synagogue is a Jewish house of worship. Jesus often taught in synagogues where he sometimes ran afoul of Jewish leaders. In the book of Acts, Paul and others attend synagogues and teach in them. More. The practice is first mentioned in the Bible in the story of Abraham and MelchizedekThe priest-king of Salem encountered by Abraham. More in Genesis 14.
Melchizedek is a mysterious figure in Genesis. He does not appear before Genesis 14 and is not mentioned afterward. He is king of Salem (Jerusalem) and priestA priest is a person who has the authority to perform religious rites. In New Testament times priests were responsible for daily offerings and sacrifices in the temple. More of God Most High. Abraham/Abram meets him as Abraham returns from rescuing his nephew LotNephew of Abraham and Sarah. More, along with his family and possessions, from some marauding kings. Melchizedek offers hospitality to Abraham and blesses him, and then Abraham gives him one tenth of everything he has.
Tithing is mentioned in other places in the Old Testament. After God speaks to Jacob at Bethel and gives him the promises God made to Abraham of land, offspring, and blessings, Jacob vows that if God remains faithful to him, he will give one-tenth of everything he has to God (Genesis 28:22). The book of Leviticus mandates tithing of grain, fruit, and livestock (Leviticus 27:30-32). Numbers decrees that the Israelites are to give the Levites a tithe of their produce, since the Levites do not have an allotment of land and they serve in the tabernacleThe tabernacle, a word meaning "tent," was a portable worship place for the Hebrew people after they left Egypt. It was said to contain the ark of the covenant. The plans for the tabernacle are dictated by God in Exodus 26. More (Numbers 18:21-32). AmosProphet to the northern kingdom who condemned Israel's oppression of the poor, calling for justice to "roll down like waters." More 4:4 mentions tithing and NehemiahThe governor of Jerusalem who rebuilt the city walls after the exile. More chastises the Jews for not giving their tithes to the Levites, to whom they are owed (Nehemiah 13:10-12).
Today, as in biblical times, tithing supports the work of clergy and other religious leaders, as well as the ministry of faith communities.
