Apology
Ever since the second century, the word “apology” (apologia) has been associated with the rational defense of Christianity. In the Book of Acts, PaulThe Apostle Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was the author of several New Testament letters and the founder of many Christian communities. More defends himself a number of times before public tribunals. In line with this meaning, Paul ostensibly wrote 2 Corinthians as a defense (apologeomai) against accusations from competing apostles (2 Corinthians 12:19). The letter serves as a response to the two main charges against him—that he writes bold and angry letters, on the one hand, but then has a weak bodily presence and poor rhetorical skills, on the other (10:9-10). However, Paul’s response to these charges is neither a defense of his ministry based on the kind of criteria the Corinthians appear to have been demanding (10:12), nor is it an attempt to provide an excuse for his behavior, or even a regretful acknowledgment of any offense or failure (although he does say he regrets, albeit only briefly, having caused them pain with his letter) (7:8). Rather, his response is simply an enactment of the service and word of reconciliation that the gospel of JesusJesus is the Messiah whose life, death, and resurrection are God's saving act for humanity. More Christ entails (5:18-19). The word of reconciliation is enacted by proclaiming the MessiahThe Messiah was the one who, it was believed, would come to free the people of Israel from bondage and exile. In Jewish thought the Messiah is the anticipated one who will come, as prophesied by Isaiah. In Christian thought Jesus of Nazareth is identified... More as Lord, and its service is enacted by his being their servant in Jesus (4:5). By embodying and proclaiming the gospel of Jesus Christ, Paul seeks to build up the Corinthians so that they can discern for themselves not whether or not he has met their test (13:5-7), but who they are before God and what they are called to do since the same Messiah who lives in him also lives in them (10:7). Thus, ultimately, it is the “face” (or presence) of Jesus Christ within both Paul and the Corinthians that grounds both the service and word of the gospel. Such a criterion is self-authenticating, since the Messiah is as present in the Corinthians as it is in Paul (4:6; cf. 3:18).
ApostleDerived from a Greek word meaning "one who is sent," an apostle is a person who embraces and advocates another person's idea or beliefs. At the beginning of his ministry Jesus called twelve apostles to follow and serve him. Paul became an apostle of Jesus... More
In the New Testament, “apostle” (apostle) refers not only to the original twelve disciples, in addition to Paul (1 Corinthians 15:7-9), but also to the function of being called and sent to proclaim the gospel (Romans 1:5). Thus, Paul lists it first among the HolyHoly is a term that originally meant set apart for the worship or service of God. While the term may refer to people, objects, time, or places, holiness in Judaism and Christianity primarily denotes the realm of the divine More Spirit’s gifts within the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:28) and describes certain coworkers as apostles (2 Corinthians 8:23; Philippians 2:25; Romans 11:13). The broader biblical context for the New Testament understanding of an apostle is related to the rabbinic concept of shaliah, which refers to an agent or representative with authority to act on behalf of another. In line with this, apostles are more specifically understood to be messengers or representatives of God, sent with a specific mission. Thus, they are aligned with the prophets (LukeThe "beloved physician" and companion of Paul. More 11:49). In line with this meaning, the call experiences of MosesProphet who led Israel out of Egypt to the Promised Land and received the law at Sinai. More (Exodus 3:4) and IsaiahIsaiah, son of Amoz, who prophesied in Jerusalem, is included among the prophets of the eighth century BCE (along with Amos, Hosea, and Micah)--preachers who boldly proclaimed God's word of judgment against the economic, social, and religious disorders of their time. More (Isaiah 6:8) perhaps serve as models for Paul’s call experience (Galatians 1:1; Romans 1:1-5). The word is also related to angels being sent by God (e.g., Numbers 20:16), and even to WisdomWisdom encompasses the qualities of experience, knowledge, and good judgment. The Old Testament book of Proverbs, which sometimes invokes a Woman as the personification of Wisdom, is a collection of aphorisms and moral teachings. Along with other biblical passages, it teaches, "The fear of the... More and to the Holy Spirit being sent by God (Wisdom 9:17), a theme later related in trinitarian theology to the Father’s sending the Son and the Spirit (Galatians 4:4-6; cf. Augustine, On the Trinity). In the later theological tradition, the Apostles’ Creed, associated with the tradition of the apostles, would be important for safeguarding the transmission of church teaching. Within the West, PeterPeter (also known as Cephas, Simon Peter) was the disciple who denied Jesus during his trial but later became a leader in proclaiming Jesus. More would become especially prominent as the foundation for the Roman See (cf. MatthewA tax collector who became one of Jesus' 12 disciples. More 16:18-19). There would also emerge the belief, still held in Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, that bishops were to have an unbroken line of succession traceable to the apostles of Jesus Christ, although Luther and other reformers would emphasize that the message of the gospel served as the sole criterion determining apostolic authority. In view of this history, Paul’s polemical defense of his apostolic ministry in his letters to the Corinthians remains significant. In 1 Corinthians, he maintains that as an apostle he is both “free with respect to all” and yet also “a slave to all” (1 Corinthians 9:19). In 2 Corinthians, he polemicizes against those who would compare and contrast their apostolic on the basis of human standards and criteria (10:12)—such as one’s capacity to endure hardships (11:22-32) or even the extent of one’s spiritual experiences (12:1-7). He is especially critical of apostles who abuse their authority by oppressing those in their care (11:20). Instead, he emphasizes that apostles are to build up the church (12:19); their authority in the Messiah can only take the form of a power “made perfect in weakness” that relies solely on God’s sufficient graceGrace is the unmerited gift of God's love and acceptance. In Martin Luther's favorite expression from the Apostle Paul, we are saved by grace through faith, which means that God showers grace upon us even though we do not deserve it. More (12:9).
BlessingBlessing is the asking for or the giving of God's favor. Isaac was tricked into blessing Jacob instead of his firstborn Esau. At the Last Supper Jesus offered a blessing over bread and wine. To be blessed is to be favored by God. More
In the Bible, blessings are associated with the imparting of God’s favor, as when God blessed AbrahamGod promised that Abraham would become the father of a great nation, receive a land, and bring blessing to all nations. More and all the “families of the earth” that would come after him (Genesis 12:1-3). Blessings can also be stated in conditional terms, as in Moses’ depiction of how God’s blessings are contingent on whether or not one follows God’s law (Deuteronomy 11:26-28). In addition, human beings respond to God with praise and thanksgiving, as in many of the psalms in the Bible (e.g., PsalmA psalm is a song of praise. In the Old Testament 150 psalms comprise the psalter, although some of the psalms are laments and thanksgivings. In the New Testament early Christians gathered to sing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. More 103:1-5), and they can bless one another, as in the ancestral blessings found in Genesis. Since Paul understood his apostolic ministry to be a priestly vocation of presenting the Gentiles as an offering to God (Romans 15:16), his initial blessing in 2 Corinthians probably follows the pattern whereby priests or others functioning in an office would bless others on behalf of God, as in the “Priestly Benediction” (Numbers 6:24-26), a prayer that was commonly used in the Second TempleThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged... More period (see Sirach 50:20) and continues to be used today in Jewish and Christian congregations throughout the world. Invoking “the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1:3), Paul calls upon a God who not only “who consoles us in all our affliction” through Jesus the Messiah but also does so in order that we, in turn, might be able “to console those who are in any affliction with the consolation with which we ourselves are consoled by God” (1:4). Unlike the thanksgiving that introduced 1 Corinthians (1 Corinthians 1:4-9), which thanks God for what God has done in the past among the Corinthians, the blessing in 2 Corinthians anticipates what God will do in the future—an indication of Paul’s fractured relationship with them (cf. Ephesians 1:3). As he fleshes out more fully later in his opening to the letter, this blessing expresses his hope for what God will do among the Corinthians (1:5-14). Nonetheless, it also makes clear that the transmission of God’s comfort through his apostolic ministry is self-involving: it can only take place as he himself is also being comforted amid his own afflictions (1:4).
Face
The biblical reference to the “face” of God is related to God’s presence and how God manifests Godself in front of us. In the Psalms, God’s shining face is linked with blessing and glory, while God’s hiding face is linked with lament and judgment. Relevant as well is the way reference to the “face” is related to reconciliation in the stories of EsauSon of Isaac and Rebekah and the older twin brother of Jacob. More and JacobThe son of Isaac and Rebekah, renamed Israel, became the father of the twelve tribal families. More (Genesis 33:10) and Joseph and his brothers (e.g., in Genesis 40:7). In turn, after the Golden Calf incident, Moses requests to see God’s face, but God puts him in a hole in a rock and then passes by so that he can only see God’s backside (Exodus 33:23), since no one can see God and live (Exodus 33:20), although later the Lord passes by his face proclaiming God’s mercyMercy is a term used to describe leniency or compassion. God's mercy is frequently referred to or invoked in both the Old and New Testaments. More and graciousness (Exodus 34:6). Further, after coming down from the mountain with the tablets of the law (34:29), and after going in to speak with God, Moses would veil his shining face when he was not speaking God’s word to the people (Exodus 34:33-35). Moses’ shining face, as well as the faces associated with the Ezekiel’s chariot (EzekielEzekiel was a priest and prophet who was raised in Jerusalem and exiled to Babylon in 597 BCE. More 1:10), which have played a role in later Jewish and Christian mysticism, are not unrelated to Jesus’ shining face when he appeared with Moses and ElijahA miracle working Israelite prophet who opposed worship of Baal. More at what the later Christian tradition would call the “transfigurationThe Transfiguration was a mountaintop event in which Jesus was transformed and became dazzling white, in a manner that suggested his future glory. Peter, James, and John witnessed Jesus' transfiguration; Moses and Elijah appeared on the mountain and talked with Jesus. The event, which is... More” (Matthew 17:2; Luke 9:29). In 2 Corinthians, Paul draws on the imagery of Moses’ shining face, the letters on stone tablets, and the veil (3:7, 13) to depict how the Messiah removes the veil that keeps us from seeing and reflecting the glory of the Messiah—as God’s Wisdom and Torah—in one another’s “unveiled faces” (3:18; cf. Sirach 24; Wisdom 7). Much of the Christian tradition has interpreted our seeing God’s face in terms of a mystical vision and a process of spiritual growth (e.g., Gregory of Nyssa, Dionysius), although Luther, in contrasting a theology of the cross with a theology of glory would emphasize that we only “see” God’s backside (Exodus 33:23), even as we “hear,” through the church’s proclamation of the word, Christ proclaiming God’s forgiveness to us (Exodus 34:6).
Glory
Glory refers to God’s presence in the world—how God is revealed to be both immanent among us and yet also transcendent as God. The English word “glory” translates the Hebrew word kabod, which means not only “weightiness,” “heaviness,” and “importance,” but also “respect,” “honor,” and “majesty.” The Greek word doxa translates this Hebrew word and adds to it the meanings of “good reputation” and “honor.” God appears as a “devouring fire” as the “glory of the Lord” settles on Mount Sinai after the giving of the law (Exodus 24:17) or in a pillar of cloud or of fire as the Israelites wander through the desert (Exodus 13:21). If Isaiah anticipated that “all nations” would see God’s glory (Isaiah 66:18-19), then Ezekiel speaks of God’s glory in relation to Jerusalem and the temple—that it would ultimately return to the temple even after going into exile with Israel (Ezekiel 10:14, 43:2-5). What is most significant for 2 Corinthians, especially given Paul’s conflict over credentials with those he called “false apostles” (11:13), is that for Paul, the glory of the Lord, which abides forever (3:11), is not found in having the kind of special power his opponents appeared to associate with Moses’ shining face after he came down from the mountain with the tablets of the law (Exodus 34:30) or when he would speak to the Lord (Exodus 34:35). Like the gifts given to members of the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:1-30), such gifts play an important role in the Christian community. However, the abiding glory of God (1 Corinthians 13:13) is found in the crucified Messiah, who is the image of God and in whose face shines the knowledge of the glory of God (4:4-6)—and thus also in our sharing in his overflowing sufferings and consolations (1:5). Hence, Paul understands the sufferings he has endured to be a “slight momentary affliction” that works within us “an eternal weight of glory beyond all measure” (4:17).
Golden calf
The setting for Paul’s discussion of Moses and the people of Israel (in 3:7-18) is the story of the golden calf in Exodus 32 where the people ask AaronMoses' brother and spokesman, and Israel's first high priest. More, Moses’ brother, to construct a golden calf during Moses’ absence while he is on Mount Sinai receiving from God the tablets of the law (Exodus 31:18). When Moses returns from the mountain with the tablets of the law and sees the people worshiping the golden calf, he breaks the tablets and has the idolIdolatry is the worship of something other than the true God. An idol may be a cult image, an idea, or an object made of wood or stone. Ome of the Ten Commandments specifically prohibits the worship of graven images or idols; this concern is... More melted down. Drawing on 2 Corinthians (and Acts 7:39-43 and 1 Corinthians 10:1-5), Christian interpreters have often understood this story to represent how the Jews’ faithless idolatry has brought condemnation on them (e.g., in Justin and Irenaeus). Some have even drawn a link between ancient Israel’s idolatry at Sinai and Jewish complicity in Jesus’ crucifixion (e.g., John of Damascus and Peter Lombard, among others). However, Paul is more likely drawing on this story in 2 Corinthians as part of his critique of those he considers “false apostles” (11:13) for their idolatry and of the Corinthians’ for allowing themselves to be deceived by these deceitful apostles—just as EveThe name of the first woman, wife of Adam. More had been deceived by the serpentA serpent is described as the snake who tricked Eve into disobeying God in the Garden of Eden. Elsewhere a serpent appears in narratives relating to Moses, in the Psalms, and in Isaiah. Jesus invoked the image of serpents and snakes in his preaching; and... More in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2). In fact, a central theme in 2 Corinthians is the contrast between boasting in the Lord and boasting in human criteria (10:12-18), a theme Paul highlights with a reference to Jeremiah’s contrast between God’s mercy, justice, and righteousness, and worldly wisdom, wealth, and power (10:18; cf. JeremiahProphet who condemned Judah's infidelity to God, warned of Babylonian conquest, and promised a new covenant. More 9:23-24). Thus, in 2 Corinthians, Paul appears to be engaging in an internal critique of early Christian apostolic practice in a fashion that is perhaps similar to the way the location of the Golden Calf story (Exodus 32-34), inserted in the middle of tabernacleThe tabernacle, a word meaning "tent," was a portable worship place for the Hebrew people after they left Egypt. It was said to contain the ark of the covenant. The plans for the tabernacle are dictated by God in Exodus 26. More instructions (between Exodus 25-31 and Exodus 35-40), provided an internal critique of false priestly practice.
Grace
Paul often uses the Greek word, charis (“grace”) to introduce and conclude his letters, as in his greeting (1:2) and benediction (13:13) in 2 Corinthians. Most importantly, he uses it to speak of God’s free and efficacious act in the Christ event for the sake of humanity (4:15, 6:1, 8:9; Romans 5:15; 1 Corinthians 1:4; Philippians 1:7), even though such grace does not preclude our standing before “the judgment seat of Christ” (5:8-10). Such is super-abundant and overflows through us to others (4:15, 9:14; Romans 5:17, 6:1). Thus, Paul says that he acts not with “worldly wisdom” but with the “grace of God (1:12) and that God’s grace is “sufficient” because “power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9). In the two chapters in 2 Corinthians that deal with the collection for Jerusalem (chapters 8 and 9), the word “grace” is given various translations in English that highlight different aspects of its meaning. These include: the “generous act of our Lord Jesus Christ, who though rich became poor for your sakes” (8:9); the “grace of God” given to the Macedonians, who already have given to the collection (8:1) and the sense of “privilege” they have in sharing in this ministry (8:4); the “generous undertaking” Paul is asking the Corinthians to complete (8:6, 8:7, 8:19); and the “thanks” or gratitude God’s generosity elicits (8:16, 9:15). Finally, Paul’s use of the word “grace” (charis) is related to the cluster of attributes associated with the “Lord” (or the Hebrew Tetragrammaton) in Exodus 34:6, which speaks of God’s “compassion” (rahamim) and “grace” (hen), and relates these words, in turn, to God’s “steadfast love” (hesed) and faithfulness (emet) (see also Psalms 86:15, 103:8, 111:4, 145:8, NehemiahThe governor of Jerusalem who rebuilt the city walls after the exile. More 9:11, Joel 2:13, and JonahJonah son of Amittai was a rebellious prophet who fled from the Lord's command, only to be delivered by a big and fish and bring about the repentance of Nineveh. More 4:2). Important as well are two other liturgical passages: Exodus 33:19 (“I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will show mercy on whom I will show mercy”) and Numbers 6:24-26 (known as the “Aaronic Blessing,” which calls on God to “make his face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you” and “give you peace”).
Happy exchange
At the center of Paul’s argument in 2 Corinthians is the exchange whereby the Messiah was “made him to be sin” (though he “knew no sin”), so that “in him we might become the righteousness of God” (5:21). This exchange echoes other portrayals in 2 Corinthians of what the Messiah has done for us: his overflowing “sufferings” for us and “consolation” through us (1:5-7), his having “died” for all, so that all might “live” in him (5:14-15), and his becoming “poor” for us so that we might become “rich” (8:9). It is also echoed in Galatians, where Paul depicts how the Messiah Jesus became a “curse” for us, so that in him the blessing given to Abraham might be given to the Gentiles as the “promise of the Spirit through faith” (Galatians 3:13-14). In early church theology, this exchange was identified with Christ’s becoming incarnate so that we would be divinized (e.g., in the writings of Irenaeus, Athanasius, and Augustine). Centuries later, Martin Luther would emphasize how Christ became sin, entering our sin, death, and pains in order to share with us his divine life—thereby justifying us by grace through faith and through our union with him, empowering us to put sin to death in our lives and attend to the neighbor’s need (see, e.g., his “Freedom of a Christian” and Commentary on Galatians). In contrast to these later interpretations, Paul seeks to emphasize that, because we share in the messianic age inaugurated by the Messiah’s death and resurrection, we also share in the Messiah’s “sufferings” and “consolation” (1:5; cf. Colossians 1:24). The Messiah has taken on our sin; thus, we now are able to become in him “the righteousness of God” (5:21; cf. 1 Corinthians 1:30, Romans 3:21-22). In this way, we are empowered to participate in God’s reconciliation of the world through the Messiah as those who have been given both a ministry (diakonia) and a message (logos) of reconciliation. As “ambassadors” through whom God announces the “day of the LordThe Day of the Lord, in prophetic writing, is the day of judgment when God will intervene directly in world affairs. As described in Zephaniah, for instance, God will sweep everything away. In Matthew's gospel God is described as gathering the elect on the day... More,” that is, God’s redemption (5:20-6:2), we are “servants of God” who commend ourselves in every way (2:4)—”as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing everything” (6:10).
Holiness
In a passage that bridges Paul’s theological argument in the first part of 2 Corinthians (2:14-6:10) with its practical implications in the second part (6:11-13:12), Paul urges the Corinthians to “cleanse” themselves from all that defiles and to complete “holiness” in all aspects of their lives—giving up lawlessness, idolatry, and subjection to demonic powers (6:14-18). Modern biblical scholars have often thought that this passage was inserted by later redactions. Nonetheless, the content of these passages is integral to Paul’s message in 2 Corinthians. For one thing, it appeals to the very same biblical passages that provide the warrant for his earlier argument about the ministry of the new covenantBecause Israel had broken the old covenant, the prophet Jeremiah declared that God would establish a new covenant, one that would be written on the heart. The New Testament is often referred to as the New Covenant because Jesus came to fulfill the law and... More as a ministry of the Spirit (3:3-6; cf. 6:16; Leviticus 26:11-12; Ezekiel 37:27; Jeremiah 31:33). In addition, it ties in with Paul’s call to be an apostle of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles “in the priestly service of the gospel of God, so that the offering of the Gentiles may be acceptable, sanctified by the Holy Spirit” (Romans 15:16). Indeed, an overarching emphasis of Paul’s is on how in baptismJesus was baptized (literally, "dipped") in the Jordan River by John the Baptizer, at which time he was acclaimed from heaven as God's Son, the Beloved. Much later baptism became one of the sacraments of the Church, the action by which a person is incorporated... More, we have been “washed,” “sanctified,” and “justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God.” (1 Corinthians 6:11; cf. 1:30; 2 Corinthians 1:21-22). Because the Holy Spirit has been poured into our hearts (Romans 5:5; 1 Thessalonians 4:8), we now are to yield to God’s “righteousness” for our ongoing “sanctificationSanctification means to be set aside for a special purpose. The coming of the Holy Spirit sanctified the disciples and the people of God and made it possible for believers to grow in grace through the covenant of their baptism. More,” as we put sin to death and live out of newness of life (Romans 6:3-22). Finally, drawing on Old Testament cultic language, Paul urges his readers “to present your bodies as a living sacrificeSacrifice is commonly understood as the practice of offering or giving up something as a sign of worship, commitment, or obedience. In the Old Testament grain, wine, or animals are used as sacrifice. In some New Testament writings Jesus' death on the cross as the... More, holy and acceptable to God” (Romans 12:1).
Holy Spirit as pledge
In other letters, Paul depicts Christ’s being raised from the dead as “the first fruits of those who have died” (1 Corinthians 15:20, 23) and how, in Christ, we have received the “first fruits of the Spirit” (Romans 8:23, 11:16). The metaphor of “first fruits” ties in with the Festival of Weeks or PentecostPentecost was originally a Jewish harvest or pilgrimage festival that fell on the fiftieth day after Passover. It was during this festival that the Holy Spirit visited Jesus' followers in tongues of fire and caused them to speak in many languages, as reported in Acts... More, where the first produce of a harvest was to be given to God (e.g., Exodus 23:16), just as the first-born human or animal was to be dedicated to God (e.g., Exodus 13:1-2). By contrast, in 2 Corinthians, Paul uses a different metaphor to depict the presence of God’s Spirit within us: arrabōn, meaning “pledge,” “first installment deposit,” or “down payment” (1:22, 5:5; cf. Ephesians 1:14). Because Paul had a broken relationship with the Corinthians, his appeal to the Holy Spirit as a pledge highlights his emphasis in the letter on “hope” (1:7-13)—that, in spite of the suffering we may currently be experiencing, the Spirit as pledge nonetheless works within us an “eternal weight of glory” of God’s gift of righteousness and new life (4:17-5:5). The only other place in the Greek translations of Scripture where the word arrabōn is used is in the story of Tamar and Judah—where Tamar asks her father-in-law, JudahJudah was the name of Jacob's fourth son and one of the 12 tribes. More, for a pledge when she has sex with him pretending to be a prostitute so that, when she becomes pregnant, she can be recognized and thus can continue the family line (Genesis 38:17-20; cf. the significance of Tamar, along with RahabWoman who sheltered Joshua's men when they came to spy on Jericho. More, RuthThe great-grandmother of David. More, and BathshebaWife of David and mother of Solomon. More in Jesus’ genealogyGenealogy involves the study and tracing of families through the generations—in short, family history. One genealogy in Genesis traces the nations descended from Noah. In the New Testament Matthew traces the ancestry of Jesus back to Abraham, while Jesus' genealogy in the Gospel of Luke... More in Matthew 1:1-17). By using this word, Paul spotlights how the Holy Spirit, which he shares with the Corinthians as a “pledge” through baptism (1:21-22), grounds their communion (koinōnia) with one another (13:13)—in spite of their ongoing conflicts.
Hope
Hope is a central theme in 2 Corinthians. Paul hopes that the Corinthians will not only share in his sufferings and consolations (1:7), but also boast about him just as he boasts about them (1:13-14). He grounds this hope in the God who, having rescued them in the past, will continue to rescue them in the future (1:10). Ultimately, this hope is rooted in God’s promise that through the Messiah Jesus, the blessing given to Abraham and his descendants would now come to the Gentiles as the “promise of the Spirit” (Galatians 3:13-14; cf. Romans 4:18). Having received the Spirit by faith, we now live in “the hope of righteousness,” which is enacted as “faith working through love” for our neighbor (Galatians 5:5-6). In the end, as he pointed out to the Corinthians, these three remain: “faith, hope, and love,” the greatest of which is love (1 Corinthians 13:13). Thus, we can boast in “our hope of sharing in the glory of God” (Romans 5:1-3). Grounded in an endurance shaped by testing, such hope does not disappoint, “because God’s love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit” (Romans 5:5). In other words, although we groan with the rest of creationCreation, in biblical terms, is the universe as we know or perceive it. Genesis says that in the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. In the book of Revelation (which speaks of end times) the author declares that God created all things and... More, which appears to be subjected to futility, our groaning can also be enacted as hope, like a mother’s groaning in the act of childbirth, as we await the full redemption of our bodies (Romans 8:18-25). Most importantly, the Spirit intercedes for us with groans too deep for words, giving birth to God’s purposes in our lives (Romans 8:26-28; cf. 2 Corinthians 5:5).
Image of God
In 2 Corinthians Paul speaks of the Messiah Jesus as the image of God (3:18, 4:4; cf. Colossians 1:15). Because the Messiah has removed the veil of our idolatry and injustice toward one another, we now can “see and reflect” as in a mirror (katoptrizomenoi) the glory of the Lord in one another’s face and in this way be “transformed” into the same image “from one degree of glory to another” through the Spirit (3:18; cf. Romans 8:29). In contrast to the “god of this age,” who “blinds” us with a supposed “wisdom” that seeks only “wealth” and “power,” the Messiah is the image of God, whose light and glory is revealed through the gospel (4:4; cf. Jeremiah 9:23-24). In fact, as we proclaim the Messiah as Lord and serve one another, we manifest the “knowledge of God” found in “the face” of this Messiah, in whose life we have been conjoined in baptism (4:5-6)—bearing Jesus’ death in our bodies, so that Jesus’ life might be manifest in those very bodies (4:10-12). Although we bear the image of the “one from dust” (i.e., that of AdamThe first human God created. More and Eve), we now also bear the image of the “one from heaven” (i.e., that of the Messiah) (1 Corinthians 15:49)—as we daily put sin to death and live in newness of life (Romans 6:3-19). By way of these associations, Paul contrasts Adam and Eve, who squandered their inheritance as those created in God’s image (Genesis 1:3) by grasping at what was not theirs, with the Messiah, who, though in the form of God, emptied himself, taking on human flesh and even death, and thus blessed many (8:9, 11:3; cf. Philippians 2:5-11; Romans 5:12-21).
In these passages, Paul understands Jesus Christ to be God’s image in two ways. On the one hand, he is the Second Adam, the “one from heaven,” raised from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:47-49). On the other hand, he is the crucified Messiah who embodies for us the Wisdom of God (1 Corinthians 1:30; cf. 2 Corinthians 3:18), a theme that draws not only on the biblical portrayal of the figure Wisdom as “a reflection of eternal light, a spotless mirror of the working of God, and an image of his goodness” (Wisdom 7:26), but also on the rabbinic association of the figure of Wisdom by whom God created the world (Proverbs 8:22-26; cf. 1 Corinthians 8:6) with the TorahThe Torah is the law of Moses, also known as the first five books of the Bible. To many the Torah is a combination of history, theology, and a legal or ritual guide. More (or revelation and law) given to Israel (Sirach 24:1-34). This twofold understanding of Christ as the image of God is continued in the Colossians’ hymn (in Colossians 1:5-20), which identifies Christ to be both “the firstborn of all creation” (i.e., the Wisdom of God, Proverbs 8:22-36) and “the firstborn from the dead” (i.e., the resurrected Christ, 1 Corinthians 15:20-23).
Koinonia
Paul’s hope for the Corinthians is that they will become his “partners” (koinōnoi) in ministry so that the gospel and God’s grace can continue to spread throughout the world (4:15; 10:15). Thus, he hopes that they will share in “sufferings of the Messiah” for us and the “consolation” he provides “through us” (1:5; cf. Colossians 1:24). At the same time, such hope also presupposes that they already share in this koinōnia (that is, this communion, fellowship, partnership, and even participation) because they have already been baptized into the Messiah’s death and life and have received the same Spirit (1 Corinthians 12:12-13; Galatians 3:27-29; cf. Philippians 1:5). Moreover, such sharing in the Messiah and the Spirit is signified by their participation in the Lord’s Supper: their sharing in “the blood of Christ” through the “cup of blessing that we bless” and in “the body of Christ” through the “bread that we break” (1 Corinthians 10:16). In addition, like the picture of the church in Acts (2:42-27), Paul’s portrayal of the church relates its liturgy and shared confession to the sharing economic resources—so that the abundance of some might meet what others lack and vice versa (8:14). Finally, central to Paul’s argument in 2 Corinthians is the sharp contrast he draws between two types of partnership or communion: there can be no partnership between the righteousA righteous person is one who is ethical and faithful to God's covenant. Righteousness in the Old Testament is an attitude of God; in the New Testament it is a gift of God through grace. In the New Testament righteousness is a relationship with God... More and the lawless (6:14; cf. 3:9), between those who follow the Messiah and those who are “blinded” by the “god of this age” (6:14; cf. 4:4), between the faithful and the unfaithful (6:15; cf. 4:4), and between those who are idolatrous rather than being the “temple of the living God” (6:15).
Letter and Spirit
Paul’s statement, “the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life” (3:6) and the ensuing passage (3:7-18) has been influential in the history of Christian biblical interpretation and theology. The contrast between “letter” and “Spirit” has been identified with various dichotomies, which include: the distinction between Jews and Christians, given Paul’s reference to the “new covenantA covenant is a promise or agreement. In the Bible the promises made between God and God's people are known as covenants; they state or imply a relationship of commitment and obedience. More” (3:6) and later “old covenant” (3:14); the shift in a Christian’s life before and after conversion; and the different senses of scripture, with the “letter” referring to its literal meaning and the “spirit” referring to its allegorical, tropological, and anagogical meanings. In turn, Martin Luther argued for the importance of Scripture’s literal sense, which he identified with the law that accuses and kills, so that we can be ready for the gospel, which justifies and makes alive. In view of Paul’s critique of those he calls “false apostles (11:13) and their ongoing deception and oppression of the Corinthians (11:12-20), on the one hand, and the ongoing sin and dysfunction with the Corinthian community itself, on the other, the case can be made that in 2 Corinthians Paul is not contending that the Messiah and the new covenant of the Spirit abolishes the law identified with Moses, but rather fulfils it. For Paul, the force of Moses’ law remains even in the messianic age (Romans 7:12)—regardless of whether or not one has had heightened spiritual capacities and experiences (12:1-5). Nonetheless, Jesus the Messiah removes the “veil” that keeps us seeing and reflecting the Messiah’s image among us (3:18)—the Messiah who, as the image of God and God’s Wisdom, fulfills the law of Moses among us (4:4-6; cf. 1 Corinthians 1:30; Sirach 24:1-34; Wisdom 7:25-26).
Ministry or service (diakonia)
Paul described himself as a “servant” (diakonos) when depicting his calling to be an apostle to the Gentiles (Romans 15:18; cf. Ephesians 3:7)—a term he used to depict other apostles as well (Romans 16:1; 1 Corinthians 3:5; cf. Ephesians 6:21), even those he considered to be deceptive “servants of righteousness” (11:15). Thus, in 2 Corinthians, Paul calls himself and his colleagues “servants (diakonous) of the new covenant” (3:6), identifying themselves with the ministry (diakonia) of the “Spirit” and “justification” in contrast to the ministry of “death” and “condemnation” (3:8-9). Having been reconciled through Christ and given a “ministry of reconciliation,” they are called to announce God’s “word of reconciliation” to the world (5:18-19). As “servants of God,” their ministry is to be blameless (6:3). At the same time, Paul uses the word diakonia to describe the “variety of services” found in the body of Christ, along with its “variety of gifts” (1 Corinthians 12:4-5), alongside a reference to the specific gifts of service to others and administration (Romans 12:7; cf. 1 Corinthians 16:15). Thus, Paul also uses this word to describe the collection for the Jerusalem church, which he calls the “ministry of the saints” (8:4; 9:1-2, 13); the word is also used in Acts for the “daily distribution of food” among the widows in the early church (Acts 6:1). Being God’s servant, that is, one who acts on behalf of God, is an important role in the Bible—one shared by, for example, Abraham (Genesis 26:24), Moses (Exodus 4:10), and DavidSecond king of Israel, David united the northern and southern kingdoms. More (2 SamuelThe judge who anointed the first two kings of Israel. More 7:25). and even the people of Israel (Isaiah 41:8). However, as the Gospels emphasize, because “the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve,” those among his disciples who wish “to become great among you must be your servant” (Mark 10:44-45)—a pattern that echoes Paul’s insistence that “we do not proclaim ourselves; we proclaim Jesus Christ as Lord and ourselves as your slaves for Jesus’ sake” (2 Corinthians 4:5).
Moses’ horned (or shining) face
When Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the ten commandments, he did not realize that his face was shining because he had been talking to God (Exodus 34:28-35). The Hebrew word qāran (meaning “to shine” or “to emit rays” and “be radiant”) was translated in the SeptuagintThe Septuagint is a pre-Christian (third to first century BCE) Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures. It is believed that the term Septuagint derives from the number of scholars-seventy (or seventy-two)-who reputedly did the work of translation. More (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) as doxazō (“to glorify”), which could also mean to reflect rays of light. However, when AquilaA co-worker with Paul and the husband of Priscilla. More of Sinope, a Greek Jewish scholar, translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek (around 130 CE), he used the term “horned” to describe Moses’ face since the verb qāran can also mean to have horns (e.g., Psalm 69:31) and horns tend to have a positive connotation in the Old Testament and more generally in the ancient Near Eastern world (e.g., 2 Samuel 22:3). When Jerome translated the Old Testament from the Hebrew to the Latin (between 382 and 405 CE), producing what would be known as Vulgate Bible, he used the Latin word cornuta (“horned), a translation that would later influence the Catholic Douay–Rheims Bible (1609), although the Anglican King James Version would use the word “shining” in describing Moses’ face (Exodus 34:29). While the word “horn” associated with Moses can have positive connotations—for example, in the Ancient Near East it was associated with powerful rulers and semi-divine figures—it also can have negative associations, such as when associated with the beast with ten horns in the Book of Revelation (e.g., 13:1). In Christian iconography, Moses has often been portrayed as having two horns on his head, although his face has also been depicted as emitting rays of light. Unfortunately, many of the horned portrayals of Moses have antisemitic connotations, such as when the association between devils and horns was transferred not only to Moses but also to Jews in general in the popular imagination.
New covenant
In 2 Corinthians, Paul speaks of the “new covenant” (3:6), a phrase he had already introduced to the Corinthians, drawing on words already used in traditions related to the Lord’s Supper: that “this cup is the new covenant in my blood” (1 Corinthians 11:25; cf. Luke 22:20). The phrase itself comes from Jeremiah, who speaks of the “new covenant” in contrast to the one the ancestors had broken—a covenant in which “the law will be written on their hearts” and the Lord will say, “I will be their God, and they shall be my people.” At this time, the people will no longer need to teach one another and say, “Know the LORD,” for they shall all know me, from the least of them to the greatest, says the LORD; for I will forgive their iniquity, and remember their sin no more” (Jeremiah 31:31-34). The story of the golden calf (Exodus 32), which Paul alludes to in 2 Corinthians, symbolizes how the ancestors broke the covenant the Lord made with Moses and the people on Mount Sinai (Exodus 19-24). The other major covenant in the Bible is the one God made with David in Jerusalem (associated with Mount ZionZion originally referred to a mountain near Jerusalem where David conquered a Jebusite stronghold. Later the term came to mean a number of other things like the Temple, Jerusalem, and even the Promised Land. More) (2 Samuel 7). Considered to be an unconditional covenant, Paul interpreted this second covenant as being aligned with God’s earlier covenant with Abraham, which was to be more universal (Genesis 12:1-3; cf. Galatians 3:16-17 Romans 4:3). Thus, in Galatians, he presents an allegory of two covenants, one aligned with HagarSarah's maidservant, Abraham's concubine, Ishamel's mother. More, Mount Sinai, and “slavery” and the other aligned with SarahAbraham's wife and mother of Isaac. More, Mount Zion (or “Jerusalem”), and being “free” (Galatians 4:22-26).
Most Christian interpreters consider Paul’s contrast between the old and new covenants in 2 Corinthians to parallel the contrast he makes between Hagar and Sarah in Galatians. Indeed, this connection is also made in Hebrews, which speaks of how the “new covenant” makes the old one “obsolete” (8:13). However, given Paul’s criticism of those he calls “false apostles” (11:13) and the ways the Corinthians have allowed themselves to be deceived by them (11:20), the case can be made that his contrast between old and new covenants in 2 Corinthians is more in line with Jeremiah’s own contrast between the two (in Jeremiah 31:31-34)—that, like Jeremiah, Paul is calling the Corinthians to repentance in view of the “new covenant,” the main difference being that for Paul the Messiah had already come. The Corinthians, like their predecessors, had violated their communion with the Messiah (and Paul) by allowing themselves to be deceived and thus Paul is calling them to repentance through the Messiah. Such an argument is warranted by Paul’s concern in Romans that the Gentiles not take God’s grace for granted and instead continue in that grace so that they might not be “cut off” (Romans 11:21-22). Thus, like the prophets of old who urged that the people repentRepentance is a central biblical teaching. All people are sinful and God desires that all people repent of their sins. The Hebrew word for repent means to "turn away" from sin. The Greek word for repentance means to "change on'e mind," more specifically, it means... More, Paul appeals that the Corinthians be cleansed of every defilement and live in holiness as “the temple of the living God” (6:14-18).
Reconciliation
Paul declares that God has “reconciled” us to Godself through Christ and given us “the ministry” (diakonia or “service”) of reconciliation (5:18). In turn, in Christ, God continues to reconcile the world to Godself and has given the “message” (logos or “word”) of reconciliation (5:19). Paul develops the same idea in Romans, where he maintains that “God proves his love for us in that while we still were sinners Christ died for us” (Romans 5:8). In spite of our being enemies, we have been “reconciled” to God through the death of his Son, having been “justified by his blood,” and now will be “saved” by his life (Romans 5:6-11).
Paul’s concept of reconciliation draws from the spheres of friendship and politics within the Greek and Roman world of his time. He then relates this concept to the Old Testament depiction of the ritual of atonement (Leviticus 16), which was also related to the motif of the Suffering Servant, who was “wounded for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the punishment that made us whole, and by his bruises we are healed” (Isaiah 53:5). Unlike some emphases in the later Christian tradition, which assume that Christ’s death appeases God as a sacrifice for our sins, Paul emphasizes that it is God who initiates the entire process of reconciliation in Christ with us (5:18-19). Christ is the “one” who “died for all” and the one in whom “all have died” (5:14). The later Christian tradition would affirm that Christ is able to reconcile us with God precisely because—as the very Wisdom of God through whom God created the world (1 Corinthians 1:30, 8:6, cf. Colossians 1:15-20)—Christ is, indeed, of “one substance” with God the Father as Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381) asserts and thus able, as divine, to bring about a new creation even amid death and nothingness. Moreover, as Paul makes clear in 2 Corinthians, we are not only reconciled to God through Christ’s death, but also to one another since we too are called to enter God’s “ministry” and “message of reconciliation” through Christ (5:14-15). Indeed, Paul’s picture of reconciliation reiterates the biblical emphasis on the link between atonement and the JubileeJubilee is a time of celebration and rejoicing. Hebrew law, as prescribed in Leviticus 25 and 27, declared every fiftieth year to be a jubilee year during which time slaves would be emancipated, debts would be forgiven, and even the land would be allowed to rest. More Year (Leviticus 25:9-10), which was associated with the “new creation” the coming age of the Messiah would usher in (5:17) that would bring about harmony not only between God and human beings, but also among human beings and within all of creation (5:17; cf. Isaiah 11:6-9; Isaiah 65:17-25).
Satan
In 2 Corinthians, Paul warns against Satan’s exploitation (2:11) and the blinding impact of the “god of this age” (4:4). Drawing a sharp contrast between “Christ” and “Beliazar,” another name for Satan (6:15), he associates false apostles with Satan (11:13-14) and depicts his mysterious “thorn in the flesh” as a “messenger of Satan” sent to torment him (12:7). There are resonances between Paul’s depiction of Satan in 2 Corinthians and the Gospels’ depictions of Satan in the story of Jesus’ temptations (e.g., in Matthew 4:1-11). Jesus’ three temptations in the desert (dealing with food, political power, and spiritual prowess) echo the trio in Jeremiah’s contrast between worldly wealth, power, and wisdom, on the one hand, and God’s righteousness, justice, and mercy, on the other (Jeremiah 9:23-24)—a theme pivotal to Paul’s contrast between those he considers to be false apostles, who, like Satan, boast in themselves (11:13-15), and those who “boast in the Lord” (10:17; cf. 1 Corinthians 1:31).
Moreover, Paul’s account of the “messenger from Satan” sent to torment him perhaps echoes the biblical portrayal of Satan as the accuser who is allowed to torment Job, the righteous sufferer. As a member of the divine councilThe divine council refers to God and the heavenly host in celestial session. This council (mentioned in such books as Job, Psalms, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) confronts false gods, decides human destiny, and issues divine decrees that affect Israel and the nations. More, “Satan” (diabolos in Greek) asked God if he could test whether or not Job would remain faithful to God even if all his wealth, family, health, and status were taken away from him (Job 1-2). Like Job, whose integrity was questioned because of his loss of fortune, so Paul’s integrity and competence as an apostle were questioned because of his suffering body and weak physical presence. Perhaps these frailties, his opponents argued, were a sign that his apostolic ministry did not have God’s blessing.
The Old Testament has a few other portrayals of “Satan” as an accuser—as a human being (e.g., in 1 Samuel 29:4), a divine messenger (Numbers 22:32; cf. 1 Chronicles 21:1), or, as in Job, a member of the divine council (Zechariah 3:1-7). Within the New Testament, by contrast, “Satan” refers to God’s chief opponent and the personification of evil (e.g., in Mark 1:13)—although this figure had other names (e.g., devil, tempter, Beelzebub, prince of demons, evil one, and Apollyon). Like Paul’s allusion to Satan as an “angel of light” in disguise (11:14), the later Christian tradition would use the name “Lucifer” for Satan based on Satan’s fallThe Fall refers specifically to the disobedience of Adam and Eve when they listened to Satan rather than adhering to God's command not to eat the fruit from the tree. When people act contrary to God's will, they are said to fall from from grace... More from heaven (Luke 10:18) and the fall of the morning star (Isaiah 14:12). Since the Council of Braga (in 563 CE), most Christians have denied any kind of dualism that would give Satan equal power with God. Nonetheless, much of what we attribute to Satan in our time comes from the later integration of biblical traditions about Satan with Greek, Roman, and Teutonic folklore, although the Enlightenment sought to demythologize many of these images and themes. In a fashion that perhaps echoes Paul’s depiction of Satan in 2 Corinthians, Paul Tillich used the concept of demonic power to analyze how individuals, institutions, and even political movements and economic systems, become demonic when they manifest for those in their orbit a sacred or godlike power divorced from the righteousness and justice promulgated by the biblical prophets.
Sufferings of the Messiah
According to Paul, the “sufferings” or passions (pathēmata) of the Messiah overflow for us in a twofold sense (1:5-7). On the one hand, the Messiah has redeemed us by taking on our humanity, even becoming sin and dying on a cross (5:14, 21a; Philippians 2:5-11). On the other hand, having been united with Jesus the Messiah’s death and life through baptism, we now share in his sufferings for others (5:15, 21b; Colossians 1:24). Thus, Paul hopes to know Christ both in “the power of his resurrection” and in “the sharing of his sufferings by becoming like him in his death” (Philippians 3:10). And, sharing in Christ’s sufferings also means not only sharing in one another’s sufferings as members of his body (1 Corinthians 12:26), but also sharing in the “sufferings of this present time” (Romans 8:18) with all creation—in a “groaning” that, like a mother’s birth pangs, is not merely futile since the Holy Spirit is also groaning through us, giving birth to God’s purposes in our lives (Romans 8:18-26). The word “passionPassion is the theological term used to describe Jesus' suffering prior to and including his crucifixion. The Passion Narrative (the portions of the Gospels that tell of the Last Supper, trial, and crucifixion of Jesus) are often read in church during Holy Week. More” (as in pathēmata), of course, can have yet another meaning: it can refer to our “sinful passions” (7:5; cf. Romans 1:26; Galatians 5:24), precisely what is “put to death” or exchanged as we are united with Christ’s death on the cross in baptism (Colossians 3:5). In general, the theme of the sufferings of Christ draws on the apocalyptic notion that the sufferings of the righteous would bring about the world’s redemption, a theme from the Book of Isaiah, which was developed in apocalyptic and wisdom texts of the Second Temple period. Moreover, the Greek word, paschō (“to suffer”) is similar to pascha, the word used for PassoverPassover commemorates the deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt as described in the book of Exodus. It is celebrated with worship and a meal on the fourteenth day of the month called Nisan, which is the first month of the Jewish year. The time... More, the festival celebrating Israel’s exodus from Egypt, and which is also associated with Jesus’ death and resurrection. Thus, in the Synoptic GospelsThe Synoptic Gospels are Matthew, Mark, and Luke. They are called Synoptics because they view the gospel story from a similar point of view; they also share large blocks of narrative material in common. More, Jesus predicts that “the Son of Man must undergo great suffering” (Mark 8:31; cf. Matthew 16:21; Luke 9:22) and calls his disciples to take up their cross and follow him (Mark 8:34), becoming servants to others, rather than seeking to “lord it over” them, like tyrannical GentileA gentile is anyone who is not Jewish. The term, which is derived from words that the Bible uses to denote the "nations" of the world, reflects beliefs that God had designated Israel as a nation that would be distinct from others, and a blessing... More rulers (Mark 10:42; cf. 2 Corinthians 1:24). Related to these themes is Martin Luther’s contrast between the theologian of the cross, who sees what is visible of God “in suffering and the cross,” and the “theologian of glory,” who seeks only after the invisible things of God, which appear to transcend oneself, but which in fact only serve to exalt one’s own pretensions (Heidelberg Disputation).
Third heaven and paradise
Paul describes an experience where he is “caught up” in the “third heaven,” which he also calls “paradise” (2 Corinthians 12:2-4). Early church theologians, drawing on contemporary Jewish interpretations of Genesis 1, presupposed that there were three heavens: first, the atmosphere where birds fly (Genesis 1:8); second, the space of the sun, moon, and stars (Genesis 1:14); and third, God’s abode or dwelling. The third realm was also identified as a place where angels reside (e.g., Genesis 21:17) and to which special figures like Elijah would ascend (2 Kings 2:11). In turn, paradise refers to the beginning of all things, identified with in the garden of Eden (Genesis 2-3) and the end of all things, as portrayed in eschatological visions of harmony (e.g., in Isaiah 11:6-9; 65:17-25; cf. Ezekiel 36:35), which later would take an apocalyptic form (Joel 2:3; cf. Revelation 21-20) that would inform Paul’s depiction of the “new creation” (2 Corinthians 5:17). Although Paul does not criticize others for having had experiences of being “caught up” in a “third heaven”—he himself had had such an experience—he is critical of the way those he calls “false apostles” (2 Corinthians 11:13) apparently have been using such experiences as something to boast about and perhaps even “exploit”—playing on the double meaning of the Greek verb harpazō (harpagmos as noun), which can either mean “caught up” in the sense of a mystical rapture (as in 2 Corinthians 12:2-4) or “exploit” (Psalm 10:9; cf. Philippians 2:6-11). Thus, on the one hand, Paul explicitly criticizes the Corinthians for allowing themselves to be “deceived” by false apostles, just as Eve was deceived by the serpent in the garden of Eden (2 Corinthians 11:2-3). In turn, he likens the false apostles to Satan, who “disguises himself as an angel of light” (11:14), alluding to a legend that Satan was a fallen angel of life who sought to grasp at godlike power (Luke 10:18; cf. Ezekiel 28:12-18; Isaiah 14:12-14).
Thorn in the flesh
Paul speaks of a “thorn in the flesh” that effectively kept him humble, in spite of his spectacular visions and revelations (12:7). Paul does not say much more about this thorn in the flesh. Nonetheless, Christians have speculated over the centuries about what it could signify. For some, it refers to a physical sickness or disability since elsewhere Paul speaks of having a “physical infirmity” (Galatians 4:13). During the Middle Ages, some thought it was a stigmata, a physical manifestation of the wounds of Christ like those associated with St. Francis of Assisi and St. Pio of Pietrelcina (“Padre Pio”)—a supposition supported by Paul’s statement, “I carry the marks of Jesus branded on my body” (Galatians 6:17). Yet others have thought it referred to persecution, as when the Israelites were warned that the Canaanites would “be as barbs in your eyes and thorns in your sides” (Numbers 33:55) or a personal sin that Paul could not gain control over, given his acknowledgement that “I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do” (Romans 7:15). Most importantly, regardless of what this “thorn” actually was, Paul uses this image to make a theological point. Unlike false apostles, who measure their success by means of human criteria of achievement—such as rhetorical eloquence, capacity to withstand suffering, and even ecstatic spiritual experiences—the true apostle relies solely on God’s promise that “My grace is sufficient for you, for power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9).
Transfiguration and transformation
In the transfiguration story, Jesus is “transfigured” or “transformed” (metemorphōthē) before some of his disciples. Moses and Elijah appear talking with him, and a voice declares from a cloud, “This is my Son, the Beloved; listen to him!” (Mark 9:2-7; Matthew 17:2-5). Luke’s account includes many of the same details, although instead of saying that Jesus was “transformed,” he says that the “appearance” (eidos) of his face changed (Luke 9:29) and that the disciples saw Jesus’ “glory” along with Moses and Elijah who had “appeared in glory” (Luke 9:31-32). In a passage often connected with Jesus’ transfiguration in the later Christian tradition, Paul appears to be emphasizing that because the Messiah has removed the veil of our “hardened hearts” (3:14), we now can “see and reflect as in a mirror” (katoprizomenoi) Christ’s image to one another and, in turn, be “transformed” (metamorphoumetha) into that same image from one degree of glory to another by the Holy Spirit (3:18). This can take place because the Messiah, as God’s Wisdom, embodies God’s Torah (3:18; 4:4; cf. Wisdom 7; Sirach 24), which through the Spirit is now written on our hearts (3:3; cf. Jeremiah 31:33). In this way, we are enabled to proclaim Christ as Lord, and serve one another (4:5), bearing Jesus’ death in our bodies, so that Jesus’ life might be manifest in those bodies (4:10-11). In so doing, we “walk by faith,” and not by “sight” (eidos, or as it is translated in Luke 9:29, “appearance”), making it our aim to please God (5:7-9).
Aligned in later Christian traditions with Christ’s baptism, on the one hand, and his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, on the other, the transfiguration story spotlights his significance as the Son of God and relates him to the figures of Moses and Elijah, identified with the law and the prophets, respectively. Orthodox (Eastern) traditions would tend to emphasize how we are divinized (theosis) through participation in God’s light and life, and thus glorified—following the Desert Fathers, Gregory of Nyssa, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Maximus Confessor. By contrast, Western traditions would tend to emphasize the cross— either spotlighting the imitation of Christ (and even bearing his stigmata) or emphasizing, as Luther did, being a theologian of the cross, who trusts in the God hidden in the suffering and cross of Christ, rather than a theologian of glory, who seeks only outward manifestations of divine power, such as wealth and achievement.