Revised by Michael J. Chan (9/23)
Belshazzar—son of NebuchadnezzarBabylonian king who conquered Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and exiled the people. More?
In DanielAn interpreter of dreams who was delivered from the lions’ den. More 5:2, 11 and 18, Belshazzar is identified as the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Strictly speaking, he was the son of Nabonidus, a usurper of the Babylonian throne who ruled from 556 to 539 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BCE. Several kings briefly occupied the throne between 562 and 556. At the very least, the book of Daniel compresses the sequence of events and the term “son” is not used in a biological sense.
DariusThe name of kings of the Persians and Medes. More the Mede
Daniel places a ruler named Darius (identified as a Mede in Daniel 5:31; 9:1; 11:1) between the last of the Babylonians (identified as Belshazzar) and CyrusPersian leader who allowed Jewish exiles to return home. More, the Persian. Extrabiblical records identify Cyrus as the direct successor to the Babylonians. After the time of Cyrus, there was a Persian ruler named Darius, namely, Darius I Hystaspes who ruled from 522-486 BCE. The latter did organize the empire into satraps as did the ruler named Darius in Daniel 6. Elsewhere in the Bible, Darius I is referred to as a Persian (EzraScribe who helped establish Jewish practices in Jerusalem after the exile. More 4:5, 24; 6:14; NehemiahThe governor of Jerusalem who rebuilt the city walls after the exile. More 12:22) and the reported activities fit with the dates for Darius I Hystaspes.
Date of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest
The date of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Jerusalem, mentioned in the first two verses of the book, does not align with data from other sources (both biblical and extrabiblical). Daniel 1:1 states that Nebuchadnezzar invaded Jerusalem in the third year of JehoiakimOne of the last kings of Judah. Jehoiakim was the son of Josiah. More (thus, 606 BCE), but JeremiahProphet who condemned Judah’s infidelity to God, warned of Babylonian conquest, and promised a new covenant. More 25:1 indicates that Nebuchadnezzar first came to power in 605 BCE, the fourth year of Jehoiakim. Further, 2 Chronicles 36:5-8 places the attack on Jerusalem later in Jehoiakim’s reign, a time frame that is corroborated by the Babylonian Chronicles, historiographical texts from ancient Babylon.
Exile and future suffering
The lack of specificity about the exile suggests that the compelling interest of the book is in the persistence of suffering in the centuries after the return. The stories of Daniel and his friends are paradigmatic stories for a later time. By the end of the book the reader is positioned in Palestine centuries after the return and receives the exilic stories as encouragement to persist in the persecution being experienced well beyond the period of the exile.
Exile and hope for a return to the homeland
Questions arise when the Book of Daniel is set alongside exilic writings such as PsalmA psalm is a song of praise. In the Old Testament 150 psalms comprise the psalter, although some of the psalms are laments and thanksgivings. In the New Testament early Christians gathered to sing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. More 137, Lamentations, and IsaiahIsaiah, son of Amoz, who prophesied in Jerusalem, is included among the prophets of the eighth century BCE (along with Amos, Hosea, and Micah)–preachers who boldly proclaimed God’s word of judgment against the economic, social, and religious disorders of their time. More 40-55. In Daniel, there is no expressed yearning to return to Jerusalem for the restoration of the Davidic rule, and no backward glance mourning the demise of the homeland. Even Jeremiah’s letter to the exiles urging them to seek the welfare of the city in which they are exiled envisioned a return after 70 years (Jeremiah 29). Daniel 9 takes up the 70-year reference from Jeremiah, but the interpretation focuses on enduring suffering. There is no description of or yearning for return analogous to Jeremiah 30-31 or similar prophetic visions of return from exile.
Exile: Where are the others?
The lack of any mention of other exiles is puzzling. Daniel refers to Shadrach (Hananiah), Meshach (Mishael), and Abednego (Azariah), but no other exiles are mentioned. None of these four interact with other exiles. In contrast, Daniel 7—12 repeatedly refers to the people of the Most High (the exact terminology varies), and the scope of concern is for a community, not only a few individuals. What did other exiles do when Nebuchadnezzar erected his statue (Daniel 3) or when Darius decreed that everyone should pray to him (Daniel 6)? The reader’s curiosity is raised when recognizing that Daniel is not mentioned in Daniel 3 and his three friends are not mentioned in Daniel 6. What did each of them do in the stories where they are not mentioned?
Exilic author
Correlating Daniel 1—6 and Daniel 7—12 has long puzzled interpreters. If the exilic Daniel wrote the entire book, chapters 7—12 are largely predictive. Unanswered questions remain, not the least of which is why the book is written in two languages (Hebrew and Aramaic). In addition, what is one to make of the persistence of evil beyond the days predicted as the final days for evil? If “prediction” is the genreA genre is a type or category of something, often literature. Form criticism (see) begins with sorting biblical literature into various genres. More employed by an exilic author (Daniel), the history of interpretation has not settled on what constitutes the “predicted” era.
Extended “authorship”
If Daniel is a legendary figure whose persona is used for compositions written in later periods such as that of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 BCE), questions of history and interpretation are not necessarily solved. The lack of exact correspondence in the succession and identification of Belshazzar (Daniel 5) and Darius (Daniel 6) becomes less problematic, but the lack of correspondence to extrabiblical data for the death of Antiochus (11:40-45) becomes more acute. As with the view that exilic Daniel is the predictive author, the question of what one is to make of the continued presence of evil after Antiochus’s demise remains. At some point in the history of the composition of the book, composers stopped adjusting dates (see, for example, the shift from 1,290 to 1,335 days in 12:11-12).
Hebrew/Aramaic and stories/visions
Daniel 1:1—2:4a and Daniel 8:1—12:13 are preserved in Hebrew and Daniel 2:4b—7:28 in Aramaic. There is no consensus on an explanation for this variation. The variation would be easier to grasp if it corresponded with variations in content. Daniel 1—6 consists of stories, some of which contain visions within the plotlines. Daniel interprets those visions, and they have an impact on the rulers. Daniel 7—12 contains visions which Daniel sees about times far beyond Daniel and the exile. Daniel needs assistance interpreting his visions, and they often have a deep impact on him. These contrasts, however, do not correspond to the distribution of the Hebrew and Aramaic sections.
Hebrew/Aramaic and compositional history
Some interpreters imagine a collection of stories about the exile (Daniel 2-6) with Daniel 7 serving as an updated and reinterpreted version of Nebuchadnezzar’s vision in Daniel 2. The Aramaic section was, in this view, updated further with the visions in Daniel 8:1—12:4 written in Hebrew. (The use of Hebrew might signal some nationalistic fervor.) An introductory story was added (Daniel 1, in Hebrew) and subsequently the last vision was updated (Daniel 12:5-13). This version of a compositional history attempts to correlate the Aramaic and Hebrew variations, but there are still loose ends that lack a convincing explanation. Why, for example, would Daniel 2:1-4a be in Hebrew? Those verses are crucial to the rest of the chapter which is in Aramaic. The reason for the variation between Hebrew and Aramaic in Daniel remains a mysteryA mystery is something secret, hidden and not perceived by ordinary means. In the book of Daniel a significant mystery is revealed through divine revelation (Daniel 2); Paul speaks of a mystery of God in Romans 11 and again in Ephesians 3. In speaking of… More.
History and Daniel
Daniel 11:2-45 provides a sweeping description of the future. Two centuries of Persian rule are covered in a mere verse and thirteen rulers are collapsed into four (11:2). Alexander the GreatMacedonian leader who conquered the Persian empire and began spreading Greek culture into the east. More, along with the breakup of his empire, is dealt with in two verses (11:3-4). Precision increases in 11:5-20, describing the struggle between the Seleucids and Ptolemies (two Greek dynasties), and in 11:21-39, describing Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ reign from 175-164 BCE. Extrabiblical data aligns well with most of the details. The correspondence falls off with the description of the death of Antiochus in 11:40-45. Antiochus died in PersiaPersia was a southwestern Asian country. The Persian empire was a series of empires that occupied what is currently Afghanistan and Iran from 600 B.C.E. forward. Rulers of the Persian empire mentioned in the Bible are Cyrus and Darius. More, not Palestine, and the projected war between the Seleucids and Ptolemies did not occur. It should be noted that Antiochus is never named in Daniel and, thus within the history of interpretation, the “little horn” (8:9) has been identified with rulers beyond the time of Antiochus.
Humor in the Book of Daniel
Modern readers of the Bible typically do not associate Scripture with humor. But that sentiment says much more about us, as readers, than it does about the Bible, which is replete with humorous content—especially the book of Daniel.
The humor in Daniel is mostly directed toward—rather, against—the various kings featured in Daniel 1-6. The authors use absurdity, exaggeration, repetition, slapstick, and outright mockery to depict the kings and their rule in laughable ways. Of course, this humor serves a deeply serious and theological purpose: to elevate the faithfulness of Daniel and his friends, to stir up trust in God’s faithfulness, and to demonstrate the fragility of human rule. Daniel 3, for instance, depicts Nebuchadnezzar as a ruler who is unable to control his anger. He flies off the handle when Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego refuse to obey him. His anger is so intense that his face contorts, like a child throwing a temper tantrum. Throughout these stories, the kings are often depicted in laughable, even absurd ways. The reader who pays attention to such features will find another layer of enjoyment in these narratives.
Looking backward: mythology and ancient lore
Regarding Daniel 7, a recent line of interpretation has centered on potential allusions to or appropriations of earlier ancient Near Eastern cultural traditions. The Ancient One (7:9, 13) has been compared to El, “father of years,” and the one like a son of man “coming with the clouds of heaven” to Baal, the “rider of clouds.” In addition, for some interpreters, the judgment scene in Daniel 7 resonates with scenes of the divine councilThe divine council refers to God and the heavenly host in celestial session. This council (mentioned in such books as Job, Psalms, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) confronts false gods, decides human destiny, and issues divine decrees that affect Israel and the nations. More in other traditions. The allusions, if they are that, do not rise to the level of citations and are subject to continued scholarly reassessment.
“One like the Son of man” (Daniel 7:13 King James Version)
In the history of interpretation in both Jewish and Christian communities, Daniel 7:13 and the surrounding scene has been appropriated in directions that go well beyond the literal text. Jewish interpretation moves in the direction of angelic figures, from Michael to super-angelic figures somewhere between God and the other angels. In the Synoptic GospelsThe Synoptic Gospels are Matthew, Mark, and Luke. They are called Synoptics because they view the gospel story from a similar point of view; they also share large blocks of narrative material in common. More (MatthewA tax collector who became one of Jesus’ 12 disciples. More, Mark, and LukeThe "beloved physician" and companion of Paul. More), the Christian tradition pulls the passage in a specifically messianic and christological direction. There, the phrase becomes a title and the “Son of Man” is seen as coming in clouds, sending angels, and gathering the elect (Mark 13:26-27 and elsewhere, with parallels in the other gospels). Philippians 2:7 and Revelation 14:14, however, use the expression in a less titular manner; the “like” of Daniel 7:13 is retained.
The specific conclusions that interpreters reach regarding Daniel 7:13 is deeply interconnected with how they understand the relationship between the Old and New Testaments in general and the New Testament’s citations of the Old Testament in particular.
Resurrection
The topic of resurrection is not widely attested in the book of Daniel, but it does show up at a crucial moment. At the peak of persecution in Daniel 12, the book claims that the dead shall arise from the dust of the earth, with some entering a state of everlasting life and others consigned to shame and contempt (v. 2). The Old Testament does not have only a single vision of the afterlife, and Daniel 12 is certainly outside of the mainstream. But the Old Testament does have a belief in a God who delivers from death. Belief in resurrection represents a later expression of that belief, at least partially forged in the fires of persecution under Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
Stories—tests of faith
The Book of Daniel switches from stories about Daniel and his three friends (Daniel 1-6) to visions received by Daniel (Daniel 7-12). In the former, Daniel interprets visions in chapters 2, 4, and 5. These are disturbing visions for the rulers who receive them and their own interpreters are unable to understand them. Daniel is able to interpret them (with the assistance of an interpreting vision in chapter 2). Other chapters are episodes in which Daniel’s and/or his friends’ fidelity to God is tested by situations created through the pride and vanity of the kings.
Translation: Human being? Son of man?
The most direct equivalent for the Aramaic phrase bar ‘enash (found in Daniel 7:13) is “human being.” The King James Version translated the phrase as “one like the Son of man,” which tilts the passage clearly in the direction of New Testament christology. Most current translations drop the definite article and do not capitalize the word “son.” The latter practice at least recognizes that there is ambiguity in the expression. It need not be anything more than a way of saying “human being.” As Daniel saw figures that looked like a lion, like a bear, and like a leopard, so he saw a figure that looked like a human being. This would be consistent with Psalm 8:4 and with the way EzekielEzekiel was a priest and prophet who was raised in Jerusalem and exiled to Babylon in 597 BCE. More is addressed (2:1, 3, 6, 8 and throughout the book, though with Ezekiel too the translation varies with the versions; the New Revised Standard Version simply prefers “mortal”). A similar use occurs in Daniel 8:17.
Visions—times of persecution
In Daniel 7—12, the hardships endured by the faithful move from the tests of faith to times of direct persecution. In addition, the persecution is to occur in the lives of those who live after Daniel. Belshazzar (7:1; 8:1), Darius (9:1), and Cyrus (10:1) are mentioned as the rulers at the time Daniel receives his visions, but these rulers are not part of the plot, in contrast to the stories in Daniel 1—6. The rulers to come are not merely pride-filled; they violently succeed one another, and the people of God are caught up in the turmoil. The rulers shift from pride to direct blasphemyBlasphemy is disrespecting or dishonoring of something held sacred. To use the name of God in swearing or to commit a profane act is to commit blasphemy. More, reaching its epitome in the desecration of the Temple and the abolition of daily sacrificeSacrifice is commonly understood as the practice of offering or giving up something as a sign of worship, commitment, or obedience. In the Old Testament grain, wine, or animals are used as sacrifice. In some New Testament writings Jesus’ death on the cross as the… More (11:31). Persecution is directly aimed at the people of God in Palestine. Many of the faithful will die. The resurrection, announced more clearly here than anywhere else in the Old Testament (12:1-4), is the justice of God enacted beyond history.
