The Wisdom of SolomonThird king of Israel who was known for wisdom and building the first Temple. (1 Kings 3:4-12)
No biblical character is more associated with the concept of wisdomWisdom encompasses the qualities of experience, knowledge, and good judgment. The Old Testament book of Proverbs, which sometimes invokes a Woman as the personification of Wisdom, is a collection of aphorisms and moral teachings. Along with other biblical passages, it teaches, “The fear of the… than Solomon. The Book of 1 Kings mentions Solomon’s wisdom over 15 times in the ten chapters in which he holds center stage (1 Kings 2-11). In 1 Kings, the wisdom that Solomon acquires from God is associated less with understanding and more with the ability to discern and execute justice. In later Jewish and Muslim tradition, Solomon is extolled for his wisdom. Supposedly, one of the markers of the depth of his wisdom is his (alleged) ability to speak the language of the birds.
Solomon is a popular figure of interpretation even within the Bible. The Song of Solomon (also called the Song, Song of Songs, or Canticles) draws on the image of Solomon’s lush and abundant wealth, which is often associated with his wisdom in 1 Kings. Solomon is also presented as the purported speaker in intertestamental literature. (“Intertestamental” refers to the time span between c. 330 BCE and c. 50 CE, the age between the Old and New Testament times). One of those writings is called the “Wisdom of SolomonWisdom of Solomon is one of the two Wisdom books in the Apocrypha, along with Ben Sirach..” This book is considered canonA canon is a general law or principle by which something is judged. The body of literature in the Old and New Testaments is accepted by most Christians as being canonical (that is, authentic and authoritative) for them. in some Christian Bibles, such as the Roman Catholic Bible, and not in others, such as most Protestant Bibles. In “Wisdom,” Solomon extols his love and passionPassion is the theological term used to describe Jesus’ suffering prior to and including his crucifixion. The Passion Narrative (the portions of the Gospels that tell of the Last Supper, trial, and crucifixion of Jesus) are often read in church during Holy Week. for wisdom and the way in which it draws him into an intimate relationship with God.
Solomon even makes an appearance in two of the synoptic GospelsThe Synoptic Gospels are Matthew, Mark, and Luke. They are called Synoptics because they view the gospel story from a similar point of view; they also share large blocks of narrative material in common.. In MatthewA tax collector who became one of Jesus’ 12 disciples. and LukeThe "beloved physician" and companion of Paul., both writers refer to the Queen of Sheba’s impression of Solomon’s wisdom. JesusJesus is the Messiah whose life, death, and resurrection are God’s saving act for humanity. then uses the reference to contrast “something greater” than Solomon’s wisdom, namely, the promises of the enfleshed Savior of the world.
Solomon and Literature
Within the Bible, Solomon is often linked with literary pursuits and productions. In 1 Kings 4:32, the narrator asserts that Solomon composed 3,000 proverbs. A biblical proverb is a short saying, often consisting of cautionary advice about how to live life well: for example, “A soft answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger.” (Proverbs 15:1). Pithy though they may be, composing 3,000 of them would still be a massive undertaking. The whole book of Proverbs even associates itself with Solomon: Proverbs 1:1 reads, “The proverbs of Solomon son of DavidSecond king of Israel, David united the northern and southern kingdoms., king of Israel.” The Book of Proverbs functions as an anthology of hundreds of years of sayings that were written down and placed in the tradition of King Solomon, both to honor the king and to uplift the proverbs. (See Gustav Doré’s engraving of King Solomon for the Book of Proverbs.)
Later literary traditions also associated themselves with Solomon. In them, Solomon became known for ever more fantastical feats and reputations. In the early 14th century, Dante Alighieri (Italian poet, writer, and philosopher) referenced Solomon in his famed Paradiso poem. In it, Solomon illuminates issues of religion, humanity, and God. In the collection One Thousand and One Nights, Solomon is responsible for trapping the infamous genie in a bottle. He does so by the use of the Seal of Solomon, a legendary (though not biblical) signet ring that supposedly contained mighty and mystical powers. Perhaps most notably, in terms of contemporary readers, Solomon is depicted in DC Comics as one of the Immortal EldersElders are leaders who exercise wisdom or leadership by virtue of their age and experience. In the New Testament elders, along with the chief priests and scribes, constituted the primary opposition to Jesus when he taught in Jerusalem. who bestows superhero powers upon Captain Marvel, aka, Shazam. He also serves as Sorcerer Supreme of Earth-616 in Marvel Comics.
Kings and Politics
Political leaders have used biblical characters as allegories, warnings, and inspiration for centuries. In 18th century Britain, 1 Kings was used to frame certain events in the British monarchy. In a rare turn of events, after the death of King George II, King George III was crowned peacefully. The effect of a smooth transfer of power was palpable upon a country that had been beset by centuries of turmoil. In relief, pastors throughout the country sang the praises of the deceased king, using the depiction of David’s death in Chronicles as inspiration. According to these ministers, King George II, like David, lived a good life, was gifted by God with riches and longevity, and was the recipient of divine blessingBlessing is the asking for or the giving of God’s favor. Isaac was tricked into blessing Jacob instead of his firstborn Esau. At the Last Supper Jesus offered a blessing over bread and wine. To be blessed is to be favored by God. (Blaire French, Chronicles through the Centuries, Hoboken, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2016, pages 98-99).
The comparison between David and King George II drew critique from other members of British society. The authors critiqued not the idealized vision of the monarchy, but what they deemed an inappropriate comparison between good King George and the morally ambiguous King David. They reminded their readers of the 1 Kings 2 depiction of David’s death, in which, “When he lay on his death‐bed, when all mankind resign their resentments and animosities, his last breath was employed in dictating two posthumous murders to his son Solomon!” (French, Chronicles through the Centuries, page 100). Ironically, the King David of 1 Kings was viewed as not a pious enough figure to make an appropriate foil for King George II.
Cedars of Lebanon
In ancient times, Lebanon was famed for its gorgeous and towering cedar trees. An ancient Mesopotamian poem from 2000 BCE, The Epic of Gilgamesh, refers to the mighty cedar forests of Lebanon. In 1 Kings 5-9, the narrator describes the cedar gifts of the wealthy King HiramKing of Tyre who provided materials for Solomon’s Temple. of Tyre, a city-state on the southern coast of Lebanon. To honor the Israelite kings, King Hiram sent cedar trees to both King David and King Solomon, which they used to build or build up the royal palace and God’s TempleThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged…. When the remnant of Judeans rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple after its destruction in 586 BCE, they sent to Lebanon for cedar to be used in its reconstruction (EzraScribe who helped establish Jewish practices in Jerusalem after the exile. 3:7).
The cedars of Lebanon have been associated with divinity and magnificence long since biblical times. In early antiquity, Christian monks established monasteries in a neighboring valley to Lebanon’s cedar forests, the Qadisha Valley. The cedars continued to symbolize the splendor of creationCreation, in biblical terms, is the universe as we know or perceive it. Genesis says that in the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. In the book of Revelation (which speaks of end times) the author declares that God created all things and… and an important link to the physical landscape of biblical times. Over the centuries, the mighty cedar forests of Lebanon have been whittled away to almost nothing. In 1998, the Qadisha Valley was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Attempts to restore and rehabilitate the valley and its cedars are ongoing.
In a 2009 album, the internationally-renowned band U2 published a song called “Cedars of Lebanon.” This song takes the phrase “Cedars of Lebanon” in an entirely different direction. The song depicts a war correspondent reporting from the front lines of a conflict. The first three-quarters of the song crystallize the audience’s attention on small moments of suffering: a smiling face in an old Polaroid, the owner presumed dead; a child sipping on sullied water while a soldier enjoys oranges; the ephemeral nature of anything good in light of the human penchant for destruction. In the second-to-last stanza, the singer drags their attention (and with it, the listener) from these minute details up to the heavens: “You’re so high above me, higher than everyone / Where are you in the Cedars of Lebanon?” With the phrase “Cedars of Lebanon,” the singer deftly draws the Divine One into the conversation. Accusingly, the artist seems to ask, “God, will You just continue to sit enthroned above in cedar-filled splendor? Or will You come down and tend to the unimaginable pain of Your human creation?”
Solomon’s (Foreign) Wives and Blaming the (Foreign) Women (1 Kings 11)
When it comes to Solomon’s flaws as a king, one aspect is typically named: Solomon’s wives. While Solomon is famed for his wealth and wisdom, he is almost as well-known for the number of women that he married: 700 princesses and 300 concubines. These women often bear the blame for Solomon’s fallThe Fall refers specifically to the disobedience of Adam and Eve when they listened to Satan rather than adhering to God’s command not to eat the fruit from the tree. When people act contrary to God’s will, they are said to fall from from grace… from graceGrace is the unmerited gift of God’s love and acceptance. In Martin Luther’s favorite expression from the Apostle Paul, we are saved by grace through faith, which means that God showers grace upon us even though we do not deserve it.. Yet several aspects of Solomon’s reign were dubious in nature, if not outright sinful. He did marry a shocking number of foreign women (emphasis on the “foreign” in the mind of the narrator) and followed after their deities. This act was not the sum total of his sin, however. He began his reign by shedding blood, a move that, while politically savvy, violated the Ten Commandments. He then coerced his people into forced labor for the Temple and his own massive palace structure, which was in direct contradiction to divine mandates (Leviticus 25:26; 26:13). He also amassed an overabundance of wealth and military might, even though it was explicitly called an abuse of royal power (1 SamuelThe judge who anointed the first two kings of Israel. 8:1-22) and outlawed (Deuteronomy 17:14-20).
There were, in short, several skeletons in Solomon’s closet, numerous instances of flouting God’s commandments and will. And yet, it is often only the women who are associated with Solomon’s disgrace. Furthermore, they are most often presented as intentionally luring Solomon into idolatrous shame. In 1750, Sebastiano Conca, an Italian painter, produced a painting called “Solomon Worshiping Idols.” In it, King Solomon holds an incense censer and gazes up at a statue of a foreign goddess. Action takes place all around Solomon, and it all seems to be happening to him rather than by him. He holds the censer, but a woman lights it. Another woman to his left watches him intently (ensuring his proper devotion to the idolIdolatry is the worship of something other than the true God. An idol may be a cult image, an idea, or an object made of wood or stone. Ome of the Ten Commandments specifically prohibits the worship of graven images or idols; this concern is…?). Three other women facilitate the ritual with music, and two more to his right direct the scene. The background is filled with women making sacrifices to foreign gods. What the painting clearly communicates is that King Solomon (in the interpretation of the artist) was acted upon by his wives, and he was a victim of their persuasion.
Certain biblical texts bear up this interpretation, most notably 1 Kings 11:4. Perhaps the emphasis, however, has been placed on the wrong part of that verse: “When Solomon was old, his wives turned away his heart after other gods; and his heart was not true to the LORD his God, as was the heart of his father David.” Whether or not the wives actively worked to convert Solomon, he is named in the second half of the verse as the one who bears the blame: it was his heart that was not true to the LORD, even though his father David modeled proper devotion. Furthermore, when Solomon’s kingdom later falls under his son’s rule, foreign wives are not the cause; rather, his son decided to follow in his father’s footsteps of abusive royal practices of forced labor. In a society today that too often blames women (notably foreign women or women of color) for any manner of sins, readers would do well to remember that the text ultimately points the finger at Solomon who did not keep his heart true to God.
The Good Samari(t)an, the Woman at the Well (1 Kings 16)
In the New Testament, Jesus tells a story about a good man who helps an injured traveler (Luke 10). In John, Jesus meets face-to-face with a woman at a well (John 4). In both stories, the man and the women are presented as unlikely, even scandalous, heroes. It is not immediately clear, however, why they would have been considered objectionable by first-century Jews. The tension underlying the characters stems from the fact that both people were Samaritans. But who were the Samaritans, and do they still exist today?
In 1 Kings 16, the narrator includes a rather banal note: “Omri bought the hill of Shomron from Shemer for two talents of silver; he fortified the hill, and called the city that he built, Shomron, after the name of Shemer, the owner of the hill.” Shomron would become the center of Omri’s kingdom, and the capital of the northern kingdomThe Northern Kingdom consisted of ten of the twelve tribes of Israel and lasted for 200 years until it was destroyed by Assyria in 721 B.C.E. In the northern kingdom the kings were evil. Prophets like Elijah and Amos railed against them and their evildoing. of Israel for decades to come. The people of Shomron are better known by their Greek name, the Σαμαρειτῶν, or, the Samaritans. The Samaritans had a similar religion to Judaism. When Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel (sometimes known as Samaria) in the late 700’s BCE, they enacted a devastating type of colonialism upon it: in an attempt to squash uprisings before they began, the Assyrians exported many Israelites while also importing foreign peoples from other conquered kingdoms. What sprang up from this mélange of faiths was a form of worship of YHWH that was similar to Judaism, but different in several important ways (including in holyHoly is a term that originally meant set apart for the worship or service of God. While the term may refer to people, objects, time, or places, holiness in Judaism and Christianity primarily denotes the realm of the divine Scriptures, rituals, and spaces). Samaria would remain infamous as a place whose incorrect worship of YHWH was detestable in the eyes of first-century Jews. Thus, when Jesus (or the Gospel writers) wanted to make a point about God’s grace extending beyond the borders of Judea, the Samaritans were a natural illustration to use.
The Samaritan community survives today, though its numbers are much reduced. With under 1,000 members, they live mainly around Mt. Gerizim in Israel-Palestine, continuing to adhere to their ancient rituals, customs, and beliefs.
ElijahA miracle working Israelite prophet who opposed worship of Baal., AhabKing of Israel who opposed Elijah., and Moby Dick (1 Kings 17:1-3)
“Call me IshmaelThe son of Abraham and the Egyptian woman Hagar..” With its dramatically succinct opening line, Herman Melville’s opus Moby Dick situates itself in relationship to the biblical text. The form that relationship takes has been open to debate for decades of literary and biblical scholarship. What is certain is that the author drew prolifically from biblical themes, narratives, and characters.
The main character of the story is a whaling captain whose sole mission is to vanquish the eponymous massive white whale. The captain is vengeful, violent, and obsessive, and his name is Ahab. Ishmael, the narrator of the story, is a sailor on Captain Ahab’s vessel. He is visited by a prophetic-like figure named Elijah. Much like the biblical Elijah, the novel’s character is set against Ahab, and urges Ishmael to avoid sailing with the crazed captain. Unlike the Bible, Ahab’s ultimate showdown comes not between himself and the prophet-figure, but between himself and the whale. Much like JezebelQueen who promoted worship of Baal and who opposed Elijah., the biblical character of Ahab has endured long past the pages of Scripture. Though set in a completely different time, space, and plot, Melville’s novel captures the moral ambiguity of the biblical Ahab, the prophetic calling of Elijah, the epic nature of cosmic enemies, and the devastating consequences on people caught in the middle – all amplified to whale-like proportions.
A Still, Small Voice
The ever-evocative phrase “a still, small voice” (1 Kings 19:12) has captured the imagination of modern worshippers. The phrase is taken up in the refrain to the hymn “The Still, Small Voice,” by Will L. Thompson (the same author of such hymns as “Softly and Tenderly, Jesus is Calling”). In 1 Kings 19, an exhausted and terrified Elijah is treated to a dramatic demonstration of God’s power and abiding presence. After ferocious winds, an earthquake, and fire, the almost-theophany culminates in what some translations call “a still small voice” (RSV). In the hymn by the same name, Thompson borrows the phrase “still small voice” from Elijah’s story and assigns it to Jesus’ words within the Christian’s heart.
“A Still Small Voice” is also used as the title for a 2023 documentary about hospital chaplains. In it, Luke Lorentzen follows a group of chaplain residents (students who are completing their training to become full-fledged chaplains). After dealing with death, illness, shock, and suffering, day-in and day-out, the residents question the sustainability of their chaplaincy calling. The phrase “a still, small voice” appears explicitly in one particular scene. In it, a female patient cites the “still, small voice” in a conversation about her looming death. For her, the phrase seems to capture much of what Thompson’s hymn conveyed: a gentle summons from a loving Savior. As the title to a documentary that witnesses to chaplaincy burnout, the phrase “a still small voice” functions with a double meaning. In Elijah’s story, the phrase appears when he finally confronts his own questions about the sustainability of his calling. In the 2023 documentary, the chaplains struggle with much the same. The titular use of the phrase “a still small voice” honors and acknowledges their struggles by placing them in a spiritual lineage with a long line of humans called by God who struggle with how to sustain the weight of that call.
Jezebel (1 Kings 21)
One of the most notorious figures in all of Scripture is that of Jezebel. Throughout the centuries, interpreters have draped layer upon layer of interpretation and association onto Jezebel. Today, it is difficult to distinguish between the biblical character and the traditions about her. In the biblical text, Jezebel is the wife of King Ahab and the foil to Elijah’s attempts to purge the cult of idolatry.
In 1 Kings, Jezebel is portrayed as powerful, assertive, vengeful, and devoted to her husband and her gods, specifically, to the Canaanite deity Baal. Jezebel’s name in Hebrew is related to the phrase “Baal exalts”. She is the only queen of the Northern Kingdom who plays an active role in 1-2 Kings. Jezebel is unapologetically committed to the religions of her homeland, and she does her best to live as a faithful Baalite. The text portrays her as (traditionally) masculine in her assertiveness and as unapologetically fierce in her leadership (see her death story in 2 Kings 9:30-37).
A later text, Revelation 2:20-25, uses Jezebel’s name in a different context. Revelation was a letter written to seven churches in and around modern-day Turkey, including a city called Thyatira. In chapter 2, the author refers to “that woman Jezebel,” likely a rival prophet or ministry leader in Thyatira, who was leading people away from the author’s influence. The author goes on to describe her sins, including “beguiling my servants to practice fornication” (Revelation 2:20). It is unclear if the author of Revelation is truly accusing “that woman Jezebel” of sexual impropriety, or if the author intended to speak to the improper intentions of the rival prophet.
Today, the use of Jezebel’s name has skewed much more toward sexual insult than toward a person who uses their royal authority to bring people to idolatry. In the United States, “Jezebel” as a slur is often directed against Black women, women of color, or foreign women. In Margarat Atwood’s popular book The Handmaid’s Tale (as well as the TV series by the same name), rebellious women are sent to “Jezebel’s,” a chain of brothels, as punishment for their revolt. It is important to note the nuance of Atwood’s use of the name Jezebel. She manages to blend together both the later sexual connotation that became associated with “Jezebel” and the biblical character’s original “sin:” namely, a woman who had too much and/or misused her authority and power. In 2021, certain popular ministers used the slur against the newly sworn-in U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris.
