Introductory Issues in 1 Kings

Revised by RachelLaban’s younger daughter and Jacob’s second wife. Wrenn, 2/24

What kind of book is Kings? 

Kings (1 and 2 Kings) looks like history, but as one reads, it becomes obvious that it is a very different kind of history than we are accustomed to reading. Accounts in Chronicles, IsaiahIsaiah, son of Amoz, who prophesied in Jerusalem, is included among the prophets of the eighth century BCE (along with Amos, Hosea, and Micah)–preachers who boldly proclaimed God’s word of judgment against the economic, social, and religious disorders of their time., JeremiahProphet who condemned Judah’s infidelity to God, warned of Babylonian conquest, and promised a new covenant., and other biblical sources are sometimes presented differently and often flatly contradicted in Kings. Omri was known as a powerful ruler in historical sources outside the Bible. Yet he receives only eight verses in 1 Kings, all concerned with his apostasy. Why are the stories in Kings so different from other biblical and non-biblical sources? This difficult question is somewhat eased by the recognition that no ancient book was written with the rules of contemporary ideas of history. Recent interpretation rejects the designation “history” for Kings, at least in its modern connotation of that which is produced by a critical historian as a factual description of events in the past. Designations such as “historical story” or “theological interpretation of history” are much more common. Clearly there is a telling, or retelling, of the story in a chronological sequence, whether accurate or imposed. The authors/compilers freely rewrote, edited, and fashioned materials and traditions of varying types into a coherent presentation of the monarchy designed to make a theological point. Rather than disparage the biblical authors’ supposed failure to conform to our ideas of what history should be, we should try to determine the theological motivation in presenting these stories this way.

First Kings 1-2

These chapters that relate David’s last days and Bathsheba’s maneuvers to ensure the succession of her son, SolomonThird king of Israel who was known for wisdom and building the first Temple. (rather than David’s older son, Adonijah), are the conclusion of a long court history that underlies 2 SamuelThe judge who anointed the first two kings of Israel. 9-20. This rather sordid tale is usually referred to as the “Succession Narrative,” receiving this name from these very chapters. Its theme is boldly stated by BathshebaWife of David and mother of Solomon.: “And so the eyes of all Israel are upon you, O lord king, to tell them who shall succeed my lord the king on the throne” (1 Kings 1:20, NJPS).

Babylonian/Assyrian references to Kings

Several references to people or events in the books of Kings appear outside of the Bible in Babylonian or Assyrian sources. The most important are:

• SennacheribSennacherib was the Assyrian king who besieged Jerusalem during the reign of Hezekiah. of Assyria describes his siege of Hezekiah’s Jerusalem (701 BCE; see 2 Kings 18:17-19:37).
• Sargon II of Assyria claims in his annals that he conquered Israel and took them into exile (722 BCE; see 2 Kings 17;also recorded in Isaiah 20:1).
• The battle of Qarqar (853 BCE), to which AhabKing of Israel who opposed Elijah. of Israel contributed two thousand chariots and ten thousand soldiers (not mentioned in Kings).
• Several kings are mentioned as paying tribute to Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria: Menaham, Pekah, and Hoshea of Israel, and possibly Azariah of JudahJudah was the name of Jacob’s fourth son and one of the 12 tribes. (see 2 Kings 15-17).
• The Moabite Stone (830 BCE) mentions Omri and his son Ahab (for Omri, see 1 Kings 16; for Ahab, see 2 Kings 16-22).
• The Rimah Stela (796 BCE) states that Jehoash of Samaria brought Adad-nerari III of Assyria tribute (see 2 Kings 13-14).
• JehuAnointed king by Elisha, Jehu overthrew the dynasty of Ahab and Jezebel.’s name appears on the Black Obelisk of Kalhu (841 BCE; see 1 Kings 19; 2 Kings 9-10).
• The Babylonian Chronicle of Shalmaneser V of Assyria records his capture of Samaria (see 2 Kings 17-18).
• Both Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal of Assyria list Manasseh as one who paid tribute (for Esarhaddon, see 2 Kings 19:37).
• Several other references to events in the book of Kings appear in the tablets of the Babylonian Chronicle.

Canonical setting

The books of Kings occupy somewhat different places in the Hebrew canonA canon is a general law or principle by which something is judged. The body of literature in the Old and New Testaments is accepted by most Christians as being canonical (that is, authentic and authoritative) for them. and that of modern English Bibles. In the Hebrew Bible, the books of Kings are considered part of the Former Prophets (JoshuaThe successor of Moses, Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan., Judges, Samuel, and Kings). In English Bibles, the books of Kings are considered part of the historical books. RuthThe great-grandmother of David. has been placed after Judges and before Samuel because of this historical understanding.

Chronology

The chronology of 1 and 2 Kings is a major problem. There are at least two reasons for this. First, the Bible’s own material is internally inconsistent. For example, 1 Kings 16:23 states, “In the thirty-first year of King Asa of Judah, Omri began to reign over Israel; he reigned for twelve years.” But 1 Kings 16:29 says, “In the thirty-eighth year of King Asa of Judah, Ahab son of Omri began to reign over Israel,” so that Omri reigned for seven years, not twelve. Elsewhere, did Ahaziah of Judah come to the throne in the twelfth year of Joram of Israel (2 Kings 8:25) or the eleventh (2 Kings 9:29)? At times, the Bible’s own timeline contradicts itself. 

Second, how long the kingdoms themselves lasted does not match the length of the kingdoms’ reigns from extrabiblical sources. Working with dates known from extrabiblical sources and corroborated elsewhere scholars can pinpoint relatively fixed dates for the division of the kingdom (922 BCE), the fallThe Fall refers specifically to the disobedience of Adam and Eve when they listened to Satan rather than adhering to God’s command not to eat the fruit from the tree. When people act contrary to God’s will, they are said to fall from from grace… of the North (722/21 BCE) and the fall of Jerusalem (587/86 BCE). But when the total number of years for the monarchies in Israel and Judah are calculated, that of Israel (241 years) does not fit with the 201 years from 922 to 721, and that of Judah (393 years) does not square with the 335 years of 922 to 587. Several “solutions” have been proposed. Most posit the presence of “co-regencies” where two rulers (sometimes father and son) ruled together so that the overlapping years were counted twice. Though this is undoubtedly the case, since at least two (Omri and Tibni in 1 Kings 16:21; and Jotham and Azariah [Uzziah] in 2 Kings 15:5) and possibly three (Jehoram and Jehoshaphat in 2 Kings 1:17) are mentioned in the text, the problem persists because at least five other co-regencies of varying degrees of probability must be assumed. 

Though the discrepancies may feel like a challenge to some faithful readers, it is helpful to keep in mind what we have said already: these books were written with a theological purpose, not an historical one. Their authors’ primary goal was not chronological consistency. Their primary goal was to present a theological picture of God and God’s relationship to the people in the midst of a terrible national crisis.

Deuteronomistic HistoryDeuteronomistic history refers to the narrative contained in the books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings. This narrative, probably written in the age of Israel’s exile (mid-6th century B.C.E.), recounts Israel’s history prior to the exile.

The theological understanding of history found in the book of Deuteronomy has greatly influenced other biblical books. In its simplest form Deuteronomy insists that obedience–usually in terms of worship in Jerusalem (Deuteronomy 12) and faithfulness to the Lord (5:6-7; 6:4-6)–brings military victory and economic success, while disobedience brings national disaster. During the exile, Israel drew on Deuteronomy’s framework of obedience and disobedience to explain the nation’s rise and eventual fall. The success Israel enjoyed during the united monarchy was attributed to David’s faithfulness; conversely, the destruction of Samaria by Sargon V of Assyria in 722 BCE, the destruction of Jerusalem by NebuchadnezzarBabylonian king who conquered Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and exiled the people. of Babylon in 586 BCE, and the Babylonian Exile were seen as the result of Israel’s failure to keep the covenantA covenant is a promise or agreement. In the Bible the promises made between God and God’s people are known as covenants; they state or imply a relationship of commitment and obedience.. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings present the history of Israel’s rise and fall as seen through the theological lens of Deuteronomy and thus are called the Deuteronomistic (“Deuteronomy-like”) History.

Northern traditions

Long stretches of the Book of Kings consist of stories originating from northern traditions. These seem to cohere in the center of the literary shaping of the Book of Kings around the prophets ElijahA miracle working Israelite prophet who opposed worship of Baal. and ElishaMiracle working prophet who succeeded Elijah. and the northern ruler Ahab and his wife, JezebelQueen who promoted worship of Baal and who opposed Elijah.. Though disputed, a plausible allocation of these possibly related stories would be:

• Elijah Traditions: 1 Kings 17-19; 1 Kings 21; 2 Kings 1:1-18; 2 Kings 2:1-25; 2 Kings 9:1–10:31
• Elisha Traditions: 2 Kings 2:1-25; 4:1-7, 8-37, 38-41, 42-44; 5:1-27; 6:1-7; 8:1-6, 7-15; 13:14-21
• Ahab/Jezebel Traditions: 1 Kings 20:1-43; 22:1-38; 2 Kings 3:4-27; 6:24–7:20; 8:16-29

Their northern roots are best seen in a number of discrepancies from the Deuteronomistic nature of the surrounding chapters:

• The sites and places mentioned throughout these traditions all come from a northern provenance.
• Beer-sheba and Beth-shemesh are said to belong to Judah (1 Kings 19:3; 2 Kings 14:11).
• Elijah is said to have “repaired [“healed” in Hebrew] the altar of the LORD” on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:30). SacrificeSacrifice is commonly understood as the practice of offering or giving up something as a sign of worship, commitment, or obedience. In the Old Testament grain, wine, or animals are used as sacrifice. In some New Testament writings Jesus’ death on the cross as the… at places other than Jerusalem is strictly forbidden. In fact, there is a lack of any condemnation of calf worship or sacrifice at the high places in these traditions.
• First Kings 20 and 21 display hostility to Syria (Aram), not to Ahab.

Some scholars believe the northern traditions in 1-2 Kings came with refugees from the North who fled their nation’s destruction after Assyria conquered Samaria in 722 BCE. These migrants emigrated south and brought with them their important (Northern) traditions.

Regnal formulas

The reign of every king begins and ends with stereotyped regnal formulas. The typical introduction includes a synchronism (see below) of Israel and Judah (until Hoshea of Israel); the king’s age at beginning of reign (for kings of Judah); the length of reign; the location of the royal capital (for Israel, “Tirzah” before Omri, then “Samaria”); the queen mother (in Judah) and/or the king’s father (in Judah); and an evaluation of the reign. The concluding formula includes a citation of the source; a death notice (Israel and Judah) and place of burial (for Judah); and a succession notice. The formulas often appear with variations or additional material.

Synchronism

Throughout 1 Kings 12–2 Kings 25, the reader is confronted with a complicated formula at the beginning of each king’s reign such as: “In the X year of the reign of name of Israel, name became king of Judah and he reigned Y years.” The formula, called a synchronism, correlates the beginning of the reign of a Judean king with a specific year in the reign of an Israelite king, as in the example above. Correlations of Israelite kings to Judean kings also appear. The primary purpose is to provide a means of presenting two histories at the same time. Theologically speaking, however, this rhetorical device stresses the interrelatedness of these two kingdoms despite the schism following Solomon’s death.

Sources used in Kings

A number of sources are mentioned in the books of Kings:

• The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41)
• The Book of the Annals of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 14:19; 15:31; 16:5, 14, 20; 22:39; and 11 times in 2 Kings)
• The Book of the Annals of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings 14:29; 15:7, 23; 22:45; and 11 times in 2 Kings). These three books (Acts of Solomon, Annals of Kings of Israel, Annals of Kings of Judah) are lost to history.
• Other, unnamed sources that appear to underlie major segments of the narrative, including court archives, especially regarding the succession of Solomon (1 Kings 1-2) and the history of the TempleThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged… (1 Kings 6-7; 2 Kings 23).
• There is a relationship between 2 Kings 19:20–20:11 and Isaiah 36:1–39:8 and 2 Kings 25:27-30 and Jeremiah 52:31-34, though which came first is difficult to determine.
• Narrative prophetic material in the form of cycles of stories concerning Ahijah (1 Kings 11:29–14:18), Elijah (1 Kings 17–2 Kings 2:18), Micaiah (1 Kings 22), and Elisha (2 Kings 2-13).

Use of traditional material

There is some agreement in recent interpretation that–unlike the writer of 1 and 2 Chronicles who freely rearranged, omitted, and occasionally rewrote his sources (of which 1-2 Kings is a prime example)–the compilers of Kings employed their sources to bolster their particular presentation of the monarchy. As such, the compilers of Kings did not misappropriate the data found in their sources. It must be said, however, that they were very selective in their use of traditional material. Readers need to be aware that only those parts of the record that served their purpose, whether theological or didactic, were utilized, leaving a large amount of material behind.

Textual matters

The Masoretic Hebrew Text (approximately 1008 CE) of Kings is generally quite good. Kings is only infrequently represented in the Dead Sea ScrollsThe Dead Sea Scrolls are ancient scrolls discovered in the mid-20th century in caves near an archaeological site called Qumran of Qumran. While there are significant differences between the Greek versions and the Masoretic Text (for example, the reversal of chapters 20 and 21 in 1 Kings), there is no agreement as to the relationship between them. Many consider the Greek versions of Kings to be generally prone to expansion and revision especially as regards chronology, and thus secondary to the Hebrew.

“To this day” 

Kings does not record the end of the Babylonian Captivity that occurred in 539 BCE. This has led most interpreters to set 539 as the latest possible date for the final form of Kings. Others, however, have challenged this opinion by pointing to the relatively frequent appearance of the phrase “to this day” (1 Kings 8:8; 9:13, 21; 10:12; 12:19; 2 Kings 2:22; 8:22; 10:27; 14:7; 16:6; 17:34, 41; 21:15), which might allow for a later date. This is possible, but it is better to understand these references as inherent in the source itself rather than as additions made by the compilers.

Why are there two books of Kings? 

Originally the books of Kings were a single work. The modern division into two books obscures the presentation of the reign of Ahaziah, which begins in 1 Kings 22:51 but concludes in 2 Kings 1:18. Kings was divided into two books when it was translated into Greek. The Greek translation actually includes the books of Samuel as well, as indicated by their titling Samuel through Kings as 1-4 Basileiai (1-4 Kingdoms/Reigns). This larger context of the four books is crucial and must be kept in mind at all times.

Women in 1 Kings

Women are often found at crucial junctures in the narrative of 1 Kings. Sometimes they are important but unnamed:

• Three unnamed women are instrumental in the depiction of Solomon’s wisdomWisdom encompasses the qualities of experience, knowledge, and good judgment.  The Old Testament book of Proverbs, which sometimes invokes a Woman as the personification of Wisdom, is a collection of aphorisms and moral teachings. Along with other biblical passages, it teaches, “The fear of the…: the two mothers (1 Kings 3:16-28) and the Queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:1-10).
• Solomon’s weak faith causes him to follow his wives’ foreign religions into apostasy (1 Kings 11:1-10).
• Jeroboam’s unnamed wife carries the narrative in 1 Kings 14:1-18.
• The unnamed widowA widow is a woman whose spouse has died, often plunging her into poverty and putting her in a vulnerable position in society. Jesus, in his concern for the poor, regards widows with compassion and concern. who comes to believe in Elijah’s prophetic power models that response for the reader (1 Kings 17:8-24).

Named female characters are always given leading roles in the narratives:

• Bathsheba works with the prophet NathanThe prophet who condemned David for adultery and promised that God would establish a Davidic dynasty. to secure Solomon’s place upon the throne (1 Kings 1).
• Jezebel is much stronger–politically, religiously, and as a character–than her husband, Ahab (1 Kings 18-19).

Once the kingdom splits into the North and the South, the Queen Mothers of various kings are sometimes named in the narrative regnal formulas:

• Rehoboam’s mother was Queen Naamah the Ammonite (1 Kings 14:21)
• Abijam’s mother was Queen Maacah bat Abishalom  (1 Kings 15:2)
• Jehoshaphat’s mother was Queen Azubah bat Shili (1 Kings 22:42)