Please note that this is the same material you will find in Bible in the World – 1 Chronicles.
1. The Global Scope of God
There is a popular (but imprecise) distinction made between the Testaments in which the Old Testament is concerned narrowly with a single nation (Israel) and the New Testament expands the divine purview to the entire world. Yet, a close reading of 1 and 2 Chronicles destabilizes this overly simplistic understanding. While it is certainly true that the Old Testament recounts the story of a particular people, the Chronicler clarifies that God’s gaze extends to all the nations.
The Books of Chronicles follow the rest of the Old Testament in their focus on the nation of Israel. The Chronicler uses the phrase “all Israel” (כָּל־יִשְׂרָאֵל; kol-yisrael) over 40 times, more than any other biblical writer. Often, the text links the whole nation with DavidSecond king of Israel, David united the northern and southern kingdoms. More and SolomonThird king of Israel who was known for wisdom and building the first Temple. More. For instance, “all Israel gathered together to David at Hebron” to anointTo anoint is to pour oil, water, or other substances on a person's head in a ritual fashion. In the Old Testament the prophet Samuel anointed David; and in Luke's gospel Jesus declared that he was anointed by the Spirit to bring good news to... More him as king (1 Chronicles 11:1), and “the Lord highly exalted Solomon in the sight of all Israel” (1 Chronicles 29:25). Such references link the Jewish people with the divinely appointed monarchy and underscore the Chronicler’s ideal of unity among all Israel.
This special attention to “all Israel” notwithstanding, Chronicles also offers a global perspective that includes all peoples under the umbrella of Israel’s God. For instance, David’s thanksgiving psalmA psalm is a song of praise. In the Old Testament 150 psalms comprise the psalter, although some of the psalms are laments and thanksgivings. In the New Testament early Christians gathered to sing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. More declares, “Ascribe to the Lord, O families of the peoples… bring an offering and come before him. Worship the Lord in holyHoly is a term that originally meant set apart for the worship or service of God. While the term may refer to people, objects, time, or places, holiness in Judaism and Christianity primarily denotes the realm of the divine More splendor; tremble before him, all the earth. The world is firmly established; it shall never be moved. Let the heavens be glad, and let the earth rejoice, and let them say among the nations, ‘The Lord is king!’” (1 Chronicles 16:28-31; cf. Psalm 96:7-10). Though, first and foremost, the Lord chooses Israel as a “holy nation” (Exodus 19:6), the Chronicler refers to “the Lord God of Israel who made heaven and earth” (2 Chronicles 2:12), which reminds the reader that God creates and cares for the entire world.
2. The Temple on Mount Moriah
The temple-building narrative in 1 Kings begins, “In the four hundred eightieth year after the Israelites came out of the land of Egypt… [Solomon] began to build the house of the Lord” (1 Kings 6:1). The Chronicler adds geographical information to this earlier description, stating, “Solomon began to build the house of the Lord in Jerusalem on Mount Moriah” (2 Chronicles 3:1). The verse in 2 Chronicles mentions “Moriah” in order to tie the templeThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged... More mount to the biblical past and secure the central purpose of the Lord’s house as a place of sacrificial ritual for Israel.
The Chronicler’s placement of the Temple “in Jerusalem on Mount Moriah” hearkens back to Abraham’s near sacrificeSacrifice is commonly understood as the practice of offering or giving up something as a sign of worship, commitment, or obedience. In the Old Testament grain, wine, or animals are used as sacrifice. In some New Testament writings Jesus' death on the cross as the... More of IsaacSon born to Abraham and Sarah in fulfillment of God's promise. More, known in Jewish tradition as the Aqedah—or, the “Binding” (of Isaac). In Genesis, God tells AbrahamGod promised that Abraham would become the father of a great nation, receive a land, and bring blessing to all nations. More, “Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I shall show you” (Genesis 22:2). Ultimately, the angel of the Lord intervenes as Abraham raises the knife to slay Isaac, and Abraham offers a ram instead of his son.
This substitution of an animal in the midst of Abraham’s test foreshadows the Chronicler’s temple on Moriah as a place that God chooses as “a house of [animal] sacrifice” (2 Chronicles 7:12). The fact that Israel sacrifices “a thousand rams” (1 Chronicles 29:21) to commemorate the building of the temple is no accident. In specifying the topography of the temple as “Moriah,” Chronicles underscores the link between the Abrahamic past and the postexilic present—and reaffirms that the God who provided a ram in lieu of Isaac continues to oversee all the people of Israel in the days of the Chronicler.
3. Does God Dwell in the Temple? Or, Does Acts Contradict Chronicles?
When 1 Chronicles says that “Solomon built the house of the Lord in Jerusalem” (1 Chronicles 6:32), the author clarifies that God dwells in the temple. 2 Chronicles reaffirms this point when king HezekiahJudean king noted for his reforms in time of Isaiah. More calls the temple “the dwelling of the Lord” (2 Chronicles 29:6). JesusJesus is the Messiah whose life, death, and resurrection are God's saving act for humanity. More himself echoes Hezekiah when he notes that “whoever swears by the sanctuaryA sanctuary is the consecrated area around the altar of a church or temple. It also means a place of safety where one can flee for protection. In the Old Testament, especially in the Psalms, God is referred to as a sanctuary, a refuge from... More swears by it and by the one who dwells in it” (MatthewA tax collector who became one of Jesus' 12 disciples. More 23:21). In light of these scriptural witnesses, Stephen’s recollection of Chronicles’ temple-building narrative is somewhat odd. Just before he is martyred, StephenThe first Christian martyr. More says that it was “Solomon who built a house for [God]. Yet the Most High does not dwell in houses made with human hands” (Acts 7:47-48; cf. 17:24). Why does Stephen seem to contradict Chronicles (and Jesus) by suggesting that God does not dwell in the earthy temple?
As with most interpretive questions, the answer lies in the narrative context. The whole of Stephen’s proclamation, which includes a quotation from IsaiahIsaiah, son of Amoz, who prophesied in Jerusalem, is included among the prophets of the eighth century BCE (along with Amos, Hosea, and Micah)--preachers who boldly proclaimed God's word of judgment against the economic, social, and religious disorders of their time. More, reads, “Yet the Most High does not dwell in houses made with human hands, as the prophet says, ‘Heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool. What kind of house will you build for me, says the Lord, or what is the place of my rest? Did not my hand make all these things?’” (Acts 7:48-50; cf. Isaiah 66:1-2 LXX). When Stephen’s rhetoric is read in context, it becomes clear that he is not contradicting Chronicles by claiming that the Lord does not dwell in the temple; rather, he is asserting that the temple was made by God’s hand—not by any human being. For Stephen, Solomon may have overseen the building’s construction (per Chronicles), but it was really God who built the house of the Lord.
The notion that the temple was a divine creationCreation, in biblical terms, is the universe as we know or perceive it. Genesis says that in the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. In the book of Revelation (which speaks of end times) the author declares that God created all things and... More goes all the way back to Exodus. After Israel crosses the sea to escape the oncoming Egyptians, MosesProphet who led Israel out of Egypt to the Promised Land and received the law at Sinai. More speaks of mount ZionZion originally referred to a mountain near Jerusalem where David conquered a Jebusite stronghold. Later the term came to mean a number of other things like the Temple, Jerusalem, and even the Promised Land. More in Jerusalem as “the place, O Lord, that you made your abode, the sanctuary, O Lord, that your hands have established” (Exodus 15:17). This aligns with Stephen’s recollection that Moses built the tabernacle—the prototype for the Jerusalem Temple—“according to the pattern he had seen” (Acts 7:44; cf. Exodus 25:40; Hebrews 8:5). Stephen does not deny the Chronicler’s claim that God dwells in the temple; instead, the martyrTo be a martyr originally meant to be a witness in the legal sense - that is, to bear witness in legal proceedings. In the context of Christianity martyrdom indicates a person, like Stephen in the book of Acts, who was killed for maintaining his... More merely highlights the biblical truth that the holy habitation is made in heaven before Solomon replicates it on earth.
4. Paul’s Use of Chronicles
The apostleDerived from a Greek word meaning "one who is sent," an apostle is a person who embraces and advocates another person's idea or beliefs. At the beginning of his ministry Jesus called twelve apostles to follow and serve him. Paul became an apostle of Jesus... More PaulThe Apostle Paul, originally known as Saul of Tarsus, was the author of several New Testament letters and the founder of many Christian communities. More refers to the Old Testament in various ways; sometimes he quotes Scripture verbatim and other times he alludes to a verse or passage. One of the ways that Paul draws on Chronicles is by slightly modifying the Chronicler’s terminology to express an Old Testament idea in christological terms.
A prime example of this Pauline approach originates in Chronicles’ references to being clothed in the spirit of God. In David’s day, one of his mighty men receives this divine spirit before he joins the king’s military entourage: “The spirit clothed (לָבְשָׁה, lavshah; LXX: ἐνέδυσε, enēduse) Amasai… and he said, ‘We are yours, O David, and with you, son of Jesse! Peace, peace to you, and peace to the one who helps you. For your God is the one who helps you’” (1 Chronicles 12:18 NRSVUE, slightly modified). In this case, being “clothed in the Spirit” was to be equipped for battle, but being clothed in the spirit could also empower speakers to proclaim a word from God. Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, rebuked the leaders of JudahJudah was the name of Jacob's fourth son and one of the 12 tribes. More after being outfitted by heaven: “The spirit of God clothed (לָבְשָׁה, lavshah; LXX: ἐνέδυσεν, enēdusen) Zechariah… and he stood above the people and said to them, ‘Thus says God: Why do you transgress the commandments of the Lord, so that you cannot prosper?” (2 Chronicles 24:20 NRSVUE, slightly modified). Zechariah’s pneumatic clothing allowed him to speak for God; the prophet and the Lord were of one mind to carry out the divine will.
Similarly, Paul says in Galatians, “As many of you as were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves (ἐνεδύσασθε, enedūsasthe) with Christ” so that they are “all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:27-28). Here, Paul reworks a phrase found in Chronicles (and elsewhere in the Old Testament) by substituting Chronicles’ “spirit” with “Christ.” For the apostle, this slight change would have been both completely natural and ever-so-slight, since Paul identifies a fundamental relationality between “the Lord Jesus Christ and… the Spirit of our God” (1 Corinthians 6:11; cf. Romans 8:2, 9; 15:30; 2 Corinthians 3:3). Just as being clothed with the spirit of God enables the figures in Chronicles to act boldly on the Lord’s behalf, Paul asserts that all who have been clothed with Jesus “belong to Christ” (Galatians 3:29). While Paul uses Christocentric language to make his point, the logic of his conviction about divine clothing can already be found in the books of Chronicles.
5. Music and Prophecy
Today, church music takes a variety of forms and serves several functions. Traditional hymns may offer worshipers opportunities for reverent introspection; contemporary arrangements and instrumentation might animate the assembly in communal adulation. While music in the Jerusalem Temple would have had these kinds of effects on the ancient Israelites, there is another function of music that the Chronicler includes: music as a conduit of prophecyProphecy is the gift, inspired by God, of speaking and interpreting the divine will. Prophets such as Amos, Isaiah, and Ezekiel spoke words of judgment and comfort to the people of Israel on behalf of God. More.
The start of 1 Chronicles 25 states, “David and the officers of the army also set apart for the service the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy (הַנִּבְּאִים; hanivim) with lyres, harps, and cymbals” (1 Chronicles 25:1 NRSVUE). The text goes on to say that the “sons of Jeduthun… prophesied with the lyre in thanksgiving and praise to the Lord” (25:3). The root verb used in these instances (נָבָא; nava) is the same one that appears in the literary Prophets. For instance, “JeremiahProphet who condemned Judah's infidelity to God, warned of Babylonian conquest, and promised a new covenant. More came from Topheth, where the Lord had sent him to prophesy (לְהִנָּבֵא; le’hinave)” (Jeremiah 19:14). According to the Chronicler, temple musicians were prophets who served as mouthpieces for God.
The same terminology that Chronicles uses for music in the temple appears during ecstatic, prophetic events in the Books of SamuelThe judge who anointed the first two kings of Israel. More and Kings. For example, after Samuel anoints SaulThe first king of Israel. More as king, he tells him that he will “meet a band of prophets coming down from the shrine with harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre playing in front of them; they will be in a prophetic frenzy (מִתְנַבְּאִים; mitnabim). Then the spirit of the Lord will possess you, and you will be in a prophetic frenzy along with them and be turned into a different person” (1 Samuel 10:5-6 NRSVUE). The term translated as “prophetic frenzy” is a reflexive form of the Hebrew verb that probably denotes some kind of ecstatic demonstration. The Chronicler’s use of the passive verb form suggests a less frenzied expression of prophecy in the temple, so that prophetic musicality is viewed as a more controlled or cultivated aspect of communal worship. Indeed, the description in Chronicles may be behind Paul’s vision of prophecy as a part of orderly church worship in 1 Corinthians 14. While we might not associate music with prophecy today, the two activities were intimately related in the congregational veneration of ancient Israel.
6. Rehabilitating Aaron’s Sons
In Leviticus, Nadab and Abihu (Aaron’s priestly sons) die after presenting an unauthorized offering. Moses then relays God’s words to AaronMoses' brother and spokesman, and Israel's first high priest. More, saying, “This is what the Lord meant when he said, ‘Through those who are near me I will show myself holy, and before all the people I will be glorified’” (Leviticus 10:3 NRSVUE). While the TorahThe Torah is the law of Moses, also known as the first five books of the Bible. To many the Torah is a combination of history, theology, and a legal or ritual guide. More depicts the sons’ action as a tragic blunder and reminds readers of this priestly problem, the Chronicler’s recollection of Nadab and Abihu omits any reference to their unfavorable offering. In doing so, Chronicles begins a trend of rehabilitation for Aaron’s sons in Jewish tradition that also appears in the New Testament.
According to Leviticus, Nadab and Abihu offer “unholy fire” from their censers that God had not commanded (Leviticus 10:1 NRSVUE). As a result of this unauthorized act, “Fire came forth from the Lord and consumed them, and they died before the Lord” (10:2). Numbers recalls this unfortunate episode by saying, “Nadab and Abihu died before the Lord when they offered unauthorized fire before the Lord in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children” (Numbers 3:4; cf. 26:61). Thus, the Torah underscores the gravity of the priestly mistake.
The Chronicler, however, chooses not to reiterate the Levitical transgression. The outset of 1 Chronicles 24 reads, “Nadab and Abihu died before their father and had no children” (1 Chronicles 24:2 NRSVUE), but the Chronicler says nothing about the ignoble circumstances of their deaths. More, instead of repeating the fact that Aaron’s sons died “before the Lord” (Leviticus 10:2; Numbers 3:4), Chronicles says that they died “before their father” Aaron—and thereby downplays the notion that the event was an offense in God’s sight. Just as the Chronicler avoids mentioning the sins of David and Solomon found in Samuel-Kings, the postexilic author also overlooks the improper priestly offering described in the Torah.
Chronicles’ cleaned-up presentation of Nadab and Abihu provides the template for a rehabilitation of Aaron’s sons in later Jewish literature. An early rabbinic comment suggests that God sanctified the tabernacleThe tabernacle, a word meaning "tent," was a portable worship place for the Hebrew people after they left Egypt. It was said to contain the ark of the covenant. The plans for the tabernacle are dictated by God in Exodus 26. More with the refining fire that consumed the priests. According to the midrashMidrash in Judaism refers to methods of interpretation or exegesis. Midrashic exegesis is intended to derive a deeper meaning from a text. More, Moses tells Aaron, “We find now that your two sons are greater than both of us, since the house [of God] was made holy through them” (Sifra, Shemini 23). Another rabbinic dictum asserts that these deaths had atoning power. Noting the mention of Nadab and Abihu just before the Day of AtonementA Day of Atonement is a ritual occasion of prayer and confession during which a community recalls its disobedience and wrongdoing. Among Christians such an occasion is known as a Day of Penitence. Among Jews Yom Kippur is the Day of Atonement; its origins in... More ritual (see Leviticus 16:1), the rabbis conclude that “just as the Day of Atonement atones, so the deaths of the righteousA righteous person is one who is ethical and faithful to God's covenant. Righteousness in the Old Testament is an attitude of God; in the New Testament it is a gift of God through grace. In the New Testament righteousness is a relationship with God... More atone” (Jerusalem TalmudThe Talmud is one of the most important texts of Judaism. More, Yoma 2a).
This atoning aspect to Aaron’s sons appears in the Gospel of John when, speaking of his impending death on the cross, Jesus addresses God, saying, “‘Father, glorify your name.’ Then a voice came from heaven, ‘I have glorified it (ἐδόξασα, edōxasa), and I will glorify it (δοξάσω, doxāso) again’” (John 12:28). This divine declaration likely goes back to the Greek version of Leviticus, in which the Lord says after the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, “Among those who are near me I will be shown [to be] holy, and in the whole congregation I will be glorified (δοξασθήσομαι, doxasthēsomai)” (Leviticus 10:3 LXX). The Johannine logic seems to be that just as God was glorified through the deaths of Aaron’s sons, God will be glorified again when Jesus dies as “Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). Hence, John’s Gospel contributes to the positive view of Nadab and Abihu in ancient Jewish tradition that has its origin in the presentation of 1 Chronicles.
7. Gods and Idols: Was the Chronicler a Monotheist?
Scholars tend to posit a progression of theological thought by which the earlier biblical texts assume the existence of many gods but permit the worship of the one God of Israel (a worldview called “henotheism”) while the later material tends toward “monotheism”—the belief that only one deity exists in the universe. Since Chronicles is a late addition to the Hebrew Bible, many read it as a monotheistic text. While Chronicles contains passages that describe other gods as mere “idols,” other passages are quite clear about the independent existence of deities who are at odds with Israel’s God.
Sometimes, the Chronicler equates other gods with lifeless graven images. First Chronicles 16:26 explicates, “For all the gods of the peoples are idols (אֱלִילִים; elilim), but the Lord made the heavens” (NRSVUE; cf. Psalm 96:5). Two chapters prior, when David defeats the Philistines at Baal-perazim, the Chronicler notes that the Philistines “abandoned their gods there, and at David’s command they were burned” (1 Chronicles 14:12; cf. 2 Chronicles 13:8). In this case, the text envisions idols (materials that can be burned) as the very “gods” of Philistia. Elsewhere, the text notes that the invading Assyrians “spoke of the God of Jerusalem as if he were like the gods of the peoples of the earth, which are the work of human hands” (2 Chronicles 32:19; cf. 2 Chronicles 34:25). Examples like these convince many commentators that the postexilic people of Israel had ceased to believe in the real existence of other gods and relegated them to intimate objects.
Yet, Chronicles contains other verses that indicate an ongoing belief in lower gods whose power is eclipsed by that of the Most High. For instance, speaking of the Temple’s construction, Solomon tells King Huram of Tyre, “The house that I am about to build will be great, for our God is greater than other gods” (2 Chronicles 2:5 NRSVUE). Here, Solomon addresses a king who worshipped several of these “other gods” without describing these lesser deities as idols. Likewise, the Chronicler refers to the “gods of Edom” (2 Chronicles 25:20), the “gods of Damascus” (2 Chronicles 28:23), and the “gods of the nations” (2 Chronicles 32:13-14). When the Israelites destroy idols in the temple of Baal, the narrator distinguishes between the god (Baal) and the idols associated with him: “Then all the people went to the house of Baal and tore it down; his altars and his images they broke in pieces” (2 Chronicles 23:17; cf. 34:4). A similar distinction can be seen when King AhazJudean king in the time of Isaiah who engaged in pagan worship and placated the Assyrians. More makes “cast images for the Baals” (2 Chronicles 28:2), so that the idol-making is something that is done for the deities who exist apart from the raw materials. The purpose of idols in the ancient world was to provide an image-bearing locale for the various gods of polytheistic cultures to inhabit in proximity to their earthly temple worshipers. Therefore, often the “gods” were fused with their “idols,” which is why the Chronicler can conflate them in several passages and separate them in others. Chronicles reflects the ancient Israelite conviction that many gods exist (often inside of their idols), but that the God of Israel was superior to all other gods.
8. The Chronicler’s Israel, Past and Present
The Books of Chronicles refer to the people of Israel constantly. Sometimes, this phrase indicates generations before the time that the Chronicler narrates: “So all Israel was enrolled by genealogies, and these are written in the Book of the Kings of Israel.” (1 Chronicles 9:1). Elsewhere, “all Israel” refers to the whole Jewish people living in the Davidic kingdom: “Now these are the chiefs of David’s warriors, who gave him strong support in his kingdom, together with all Israel, to make him king, according to the word of the Lord concerning Israel” (1 Chronicles 11:10). Still other times, the Chronicler implicitly addresses the postexilic community of Israel to underscore the continuity between the biblical past and Israel’s present.
In 1 Chronicles 16, the author incorporates parts of biblical psalms into a song of praise commissioned by David. Reproducing material from Psalm 105, the Chronicler notes that God gave the land of Canaan “to Israel as an everlasting covenant… when they were few in number” (1 Chronicles 16:17, 19 NRSVUE). English translations follow the same line in Psalm 105:12, which also says that “they were few in number.” However, the Hebrew of 1 Chronicles 16:19 actually recalls “when you were (בִּהְיוֹתְכֶם; biheyotkhem) few in number.” Though most English translators default to the Psalms’ “they” when rendering 1 Chronicles, it is better to retain the Chronicler’s second-person plural as a profound theological statement: Chronicles’ particular pronoun suggests that it was not only “they” (i.e., the Israel of the past) who received the divine land promises from God, but also “you”—the Israel of the Chronicler’s day.
This melding of past and present Israel is already established in the book of Deuteronomy. Speaking to the second generation of Israelites in the wilderness—most of whom had not been present for the giving of the Torah on Mount Horeb—Moses declares, “The Lord our God made a covenantA covenant is a promise or agreement. In the Bible the promises made between God and God's people are known as covenants; they state or imply a relationship of commitment and obedience. More with us at Horeb. Not with our ancestors did the Lord make this covenant but with us, who are all of us here alive today” (Deuteronomy 5:2-3). According to Deuteronomy, it was not with the past generation that God cut the Sinaitic covenant, but with the present generation of Israel. Taking a Deuteronomistic cue, the Chronicler brings past history into the present of the Second Temple period and reaffirms the divine covenant as an inheritance for all the generations of Israel.
9. Jesus and the Kings of Chronicles
A common claim in Gospel scholarship is that Jesus’ suffering and death as “King of the Jews” is a reversal of how kingship was understood in ancient Judaism. According to this argument, the presentation of Christ in a position of weakness under Roman persecution upends the traditional view of powerful kings throughout Israel’s history. In this way, the PassionPassion is the theological term used to describe Jesus' suffering prior to and including his crucifixion. The Passion Narrative (the portions of the Gospels that tell of the Last Supper, trial, and crucifixion of Jesus) are often read in church during Holy Week. More is an ironic and unique event in the royal annals of Scripture. However, a consultation of 2 Chronicles shows that Jesus recapitulates the experience of the Jewish kings who were subjugated and exiled by the Babylonians. The Gospels present the captivity and suffering of Jesus in a way that reruns that of his monarchical predecessors and locates him comfortably within the kingly history of Israel.
After narrating Jesus’ trial, the Gospel of Matthew notes that the chief priests and eldersElders are leaders who exercise wisdom or leadership by virtue of their age and experience. In the New Testament elders, along with the chief priests and scribes, constituted the primary opposition to Jesus when he taught in Jerusalem. More “bound (δήσαντες, dēsantes) him, carried [him] away (ἀπήγαγον, apēgagon) and handed [him] over (παρέδωκαν, parēdokan) to Pilate the governor” (Matthew 27:2). 2 Chronicles 36 LXX uses all three of these verbs to describe the Jewish exile under Babylon. Jesus being “bound” and “carried away” mirrors the Septuagint’s description of king JehoiakimOne of the last kings of Judah. Jehoiakim was the son of Josiah. More when NebuchadnezzarBabylonian king who conquered Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and exiled the people. More “bound (ἔδησεν) him in chains and carried him away (ἀπήγαγεν αὐτὸν)” (2 Chronicles 36:6 LXX). Several verses later, 2 Chronicles says that Nebuchadnezzar likewise did not spare king Zedekiah or his subjects, but that God “handed over (παρέδωκεν) everything into their hands” (2 Chronicles 36:17 LXX)—just as Jesus is “handed over” to Pilate. As “king of the Jews,” Jesus must suffer the exile of his persecuted predecessors.
By recalling the captivity of the Chronicler’s monarchs, Matthew shows that the picture of Jesus being bound and handed over to the Gentiles is not an ironic occurrence; rather, it is a necessary requirement for Jewish kingship. Matthew’s presentation is ironic not because Jesus suffers as a king, but because he does so as a righteous king. Second Chronicles says that king Zedekiah suffered because he “had done evil” (ἐποίησε τὸ πονηρὸν, 2 Chron 36:12 LXX), but when Pilate interrogates Jesus and tries to ascertain what “evil he has done” (κακὸν ἐποίησεν, Matthew 27:23), Matthew provides no answer. Unlike Zedekiah, Jesus does not deserve any punishment. Nevertheless, his suffering shows that he is worthy of the title “King of the Jews.” For Matthew, a proper Jewish king is not a regal ruler, but rather a paradigmatic sufferer. Thus, Jesus’ experience in his Passion is a recapitulation, rather than a reinvention, of Israel’s monarchical history.
10. David as Temple Architect
In step with the earlier narrative in 1 Kings, the Chronicler is clear that Solomon builds the Temple in Jerusalem: “Solomon had built the house of the Lord” (2 Chronicles 8:1). Yet the postexilic author also adds to the story in Kings by presenting David as the building’s architect. In doing so, the Chronicler aligns David with Moses and his knowledge of the tabernacle’s architecture before the structure is erected in the wilderness. The presentation in Chronicles makes David the epitome of Israelite leadership and the conduit of the divine plan for God’s people.
Chronicles repeats the fact that Solomon is the earthly builder of the temple and its various elements. For instance, the Chronicler speaks of “the altar of the Lord that he [Solomon] had built in front of the vestibule” (2 Chronicles 8:12 NRSVUE). This language, however, reminds the reader of the earlier description of David handing over the blueprints for every aspect of the building: “Then David gave his son Solomon the plan of the vestibule and of its houses, its treasuries, its upper rooms, and its inner chambers, and of the room for the cover, and the plan of all that he had in mind for the courts of the house of the Lord, all the surrounding chambers, the treasuries of the house of God” (1 Chronicles 28:11-12). According to the Chronicler, David receives the design from God prior to Solomon’s construction project.
This picture of David evokes the portrayal of Moses being shown the plans for the tabernacle in the wilderness. God tells Moses to build the tabernacle and its furniture “according to the pattern for them, which is being shown you on the mountain” (Exodus 25:40). After Moses beholds this heavenly vision, God tells him, “you shall erect the tabernacle according to the plan for it that you were shown on the mountain” (26:30). The letter to the Hebrews reiterates this moment, saying, “God said [to Moses], ‘See that you make everything according to the pattern that was shown you on the mountain’ (Hebrews 8:5). The Chronicler sets the precedent for the writer of Hebrews by suggesting that David, like Moses, was privy to the Temple plans before it was built by his son Solomon.
11. The Mosaic Zeal of King Asa
According to 2 Chronicles, King Asa’s mother, Maacah, creates an idolIdolatry is the worship of something other than the true God. An idol may be a cult image, an idea, or an object made of wood or stone. Ome of the Ten Commandments specifically prohibits the worship of graven images or idols; this concern is... More to facilitate the worship of the Canaanite goddess Asherah. In response, her son takes drastic action: “King Asa even removed his mother Maacah from being queen mother because she had made an abominable image for Asherah. Asa cut down her image, crushed it, and burned it at the Wadi Kidron” (2 Chronicles 15:16 NRSVUE). This verse establishes a deliberate parallel between Asa’s zeal for the worship of one God and the previous actions after Israel’s creation of the famous golden calf. In making this connection, the Chronicler both highlights Asa’s positive initial reforms and provides a polemic against the lesser gods of Israel’s neighbors.
When Asa cuts down the image of Asherah and then “crushes” (דָּקַק; daqaq) and “burns” (שָׂרַף; saraph) it at the “wadi” (נַחַל; nahal)—a Semitic term for a small river or stream—he reruns the anti-idolatry activity of Moses in the wilderness. In retelling the golden calf incident in Deuteronomy, Moses says, “Then I took the sinful thing you had made, the calf, and burned (שָׂרַף; saraph) it with fire and crushed (דָּקַק; daqaq) it, grinding it thoroughly, until it was reduced to dust, and I threw the dust into the stream (נַחַל; nahal) that runs down the mountain” (Deuteronomy 9:21 NRSVUE). In reusing Deuteronomistic language, the Chronicler depicts Asa as a Mosaic successor who is zealous for the singular devotion to God.
The biblical figures’ demolition and watery disposal of these idols echoes the goddess Anat’s destruction of the god Mot in ancient Canaanite literature: “[Anat] seized the god Mot… she burned him with fire, she crushed him with millstones and sowed him in a field… [and she] scattered [him] in the sea” (KTU 1.6). The recontextualization of this pre-biblical narrative is an example of ancient Israelite polemic against their polytheistic neighbors (and their gods). Whereas the Canaanite text portrays two deities in existential struggle, the Chronicler repurposes that narrative to depict members of Israel eradicating the presence of nefarious forces in the name of the one true God.
12. Does Chronicles Mention Satan?
Most English translations of 1 Chronicles 21:1 read, “Satan stood up against Israel and incited David to count the people of Israel” (NRSVUE; cf. ESV, NASB, NIV). If this is an accurate translation, then it would constitute the only Old Testament instance of “Satan” (שָׂטָן) appearing without the definite article (“the”). Usually, this spiritual being is called “the Satan” (הַשָּׂטָן; ha’satan) or “the Adversary” (cf. Job 1:6-12; 2:1-7; Zech 3:1-2), which would make this example in 1 Chronicles anomalous. However, there is another way to translate the Hebrew so that “an adversary stood up against Israel and incited David.” Based on the way that the operative Hebrew term appears in Samuel-Kings, it is most likely that the Chronicler wished to allude not to “Satan,” but to another, unnamed adversary.
Sometimes, God can send heavenly beings to serve as adversaries against human antagonists. In the story of BalaamA soothsayer who blessed Israel at the end of the wilderness wanderings. More and his donkey, in which the seer sets out to curse the people of Israel atop his beast of burden, “God’s anger was kindled [against Balaam] because he was going, and the angel of the Lord took his stand in the road as an adversary (לְשָׂטָן; le’satan) to him” (Numbers 22:22; cf. 22:32). If this is the Chronicler’s meaning, then the English reader should think of a “heavenly adversary” (see CEB) inciting David to take a census (but not necessarily “Satan”). This interpretation would make sense, since the precedent verse in 2 Samuel 24:1 states, “Again the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel, and he incited David against them, saying, ‘Go, count the people of Israel and Judah’” (NRSVUE). Since it was God who incited David according to 1 Samuel, and since divine anger against Balaam led to the arrival of an angelic adversary in Numbers, it would make sense that the same context in Chronicles should indicate that the Chronicler refers to an angel as the adversary.
A third way of understanding 1 Chronicles 21:1 is to view the “adversary” as an unnamed military opponent standing against David and Israel. Support for this interpretation comes in the fact that the majority of references to שָׂטָן (satan) describe an earthly enemy. For instance, the Philistines worry that David will become an “adversary” (שָׂטָן; satan) to them (1 Samuel 29:4). Later, David asks the sons of Zeruiah, “What have I to do with you, you sons of Zeruiah, that you should today become as an adversary (לְשָׂטָן; le’satan) to me?” (2 Samuel 19:22). The four appearances in 1 Kings all refer to human beings (cf. 1 Kings 5:4; 11:14, 23, 25), and the one instance in Psalms comes in the context of descriptions of the psalmist’s earthly enemies (Psalm 109:6). Therefore, it could be that the Chronicler has a military opponent in mind when שָׂטָן features in 1 Chronicles 21:1. Though it is unclear whether the Chronicler indicates an angelic being or a terrestrial foe, either of these referents is a more textually probable option than the insertion of “Satan” into the story.
13. Belief in God and the Prophets
The Hebrew word for “belief” or “faith” is אֱמוּנָה (emunah). In the Greek of the SeptuagintThe Septuagint is a pre-Christian (third to first century BCE) Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures. It is believed that the term Septuagint derives from the number of scholars-seventy (or seventy-two)-who reputedly did the work of translation. More and the New Testament, the word is πίστις (pīstis). A stronger translation of these words in English is “trust.” Throughout the biblical canonA canon is a general law or principle by which something is judged. The body of literature in the Old and New Testaments is accepted by most Christians as being canonical (that is, authentic and authoritative) for them. More, readers are encouraged to believe both in God and in the Lord’s earthly leaders. The Chronicler participates in this biblical mandate, taking a cue from the Torah and providing a precedent for the words of Jesus.
In 2 Chronicles, king Jehoshaphat declares, “Listen to me, O Judah and inhabitants of Jerusalem! Believe (הַאֲמִינוּ; ha’aminu) in the Lord your God and you will be established; believe his prophets and you will succeed” (NRSVUE). This rhetoric reminds readers of Israel’s response to the parting of the sea in Exodus: “Thus the Lord saved Israel that day from the Egyptians, and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore. Israel saw the great work that the Lord did against the Egyptians. So the people feared the Lord and believed (וַיַּאֲמִינוּ; va’yaaminu) in the Lord and in his servant Moses” (Exodus 14:30-31). In the Septuagint, these examples from Exodus and Chronicles refer to the people “believing” or “trusting”—πιστεύω (pisteūo)—in both God and in those entrusted with prophetic leadership on earth.
These Old Testament precedents inform Jesus’ own words in the Gospel of John: “Do not let your hearts be troubled. Believe (πιστεύετε, pisteūete) in God; believe also in me” (John 14:1 NRSVUE). Aside from the shared call to “believe” in God, the connective tissue between the declarations in Exodus, Chronicles, and John is belief in those whom the Lord has appointed to prophetic office. The Chronicler explicates trust in God’s “prophets” for success; the implication of Moses’ prophetic status in Exodus 7:1 is explicated in Deuteronomy: “Never since has there arisen a prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” (Deuteronomy 34:10; cf. 18:15, 18); and the Gospel of John contains several assertions that Jesus is a prophet (cf. John 4:19, 44; 6:14; 7:40, 52; 9:17). Thus, across the canon, the biblical authors affirm the necessity of trust in the Lord and that same trust in those who do “the work of God” (John 6:29).
14. Which Zechariah Was It?
According to 2 Chronicles, a certain Zechariah is killed in the temple. The Chronicler says that this Zechariah is the “son of the priestA priest is a person who has the authority to perform religious rites. In New Testament times priests were responsible for daily offerings and sacrifices in the temple. More Jehoiada” (2 Chronicles 24:20). Yet, in Matthew’s retelling of this event, Jesus refers to “Zechariah son of Barachiah” (Matthew 23:35). While this may appear to be a Matthean mistake, the difference between the Gospel and Chronicles actually reflects a post biblical Jewish tendency to equate Zechariah the prophet with the murdered Zechariah of Chronicles.
The Chronicler states that “the spirit of God took possession of Zechariah son of the priest Jehoiada; he stood above the people and said to them, ‘Thus says God: Why do you transgress the commandments of the Lord, so that you cannot prosper? Because you have forsaken the Lord, he has also forsaken you.’ But they conspired against him, and by command of the king they stoned him to death in the court of the house of the Lord” (2 Chronicles 24:20-21). In Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus reminds the scribes and Pharisees of this event when he recalls “the blood of Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered between the sanctuary and the altar” (Matthew 23:35). Here, Matthew conflates the Chronicler’s Zechariah with the famous prophet Zechariah—the “son of Berechiah son of Iddo” (Zechariah 1:1, 7). The Gospel of LukeThe "beloved physician" and companion of Paul. More refers to only “the blood of Zechariah” (Luke 11:51), thereby avoiding the Matthean divergence from Chronicles.
However, it would be too much to conclude that Matthew “got it wrong.” First, the Chronicler contains several mentions of the name “Berechiah” (cf. 1 Chronicles 3:20; 6:39; 9:16; 15:17, 23; 2 Chronicles 28:12), so it would be understandable for a later Jewish author to import this name into the incident of Zechariah’s death in Chronicles. Second, Matthew is not the only post biblical author to make this very conflation. The Aramaic translation of Lamentations—a Jewish text known as the “Targum” that postdates the Gospels by several hundred years—addresses the “congregation of Israel,” saying, “you murdered Zechariah the son of Iddo, the high priestThe high priest was the most powerful priest in the temple in Jerusalem. The high priest Caiaphas held the office during the trial of Jesus. Later, in the New Testament book of Hebrews, the role of merciful high priest is ascribed to the resurrected Jesus. More and faithful prophet, in the House of the Sanctuary of the Lord” (Targum Lamentations 2:19-20). The Targum—just like Matthew—conflates the Zechariah of 2 Chronicles 24 with Zechariah the prophet. This similarity shows that the particular identification of Zechariah in Matthew is not a “mistake,” but rather an early attestation of a textual tradition that also features in later Jewish literature.
15. Chronicles and Hanukkah
Today, Hanukkah is a well-known Jewish holiday that incorporates traditions that became popular in the past few centuries, such as the eating of latkes and chocolates called “Gelt” (Yiddish for “money”). However, the festival of Hanukkah—Hebrew for “Dedication”—originated when Jews revolted against Seleucid persecution and rededicated the Jerusalem Temple in 164 BCE. When the book of 2 Maccabees retells these events and the resulting holiday, it offers a precedent by drawing on Solomon’s dedication of the first Temple according to 2 Chronicles. This first Temple “dedication,” which has its roots in the Chronicler’s biblical narrative, sets the standard for the holiday as it would appear in later Jewish history, including in the life of Jesus.
After Solomon constructs the first Temple in Jerusalem, he holds a ceremony to commemorate and consecrate the building. According to 2 Chronicles, “At that time Solomon held the festival for seven days, and all Israel with him, a very great congregation…. On the eighth day they held a solemn assembly, for they had observed the dedication of the altar seven days and the festival seven days” (2 Chronicles 7:8-9 NRSVUE). The Hebrew word for “dedication” is חֲנֻכָּה—in English, “Hanukkah.” The later book of 2 Maccabees (written in Greek rather than Hebrew) retells this event as an introduction to the “dedication” of the second Temple after the successful Jewish revolt against their Seleucid oppressors, saying that Solomon “offered sacrifice for the dedication and completion of the temple” (2 Maccabees 2:9 NRSVUE). In this way, 2 Maccabees offers the episode in 2 Chronicles as the template for the Jewish holiday.
The Greek word that 2 Maccabees uses for “dedication” is ἐγκαίνια (egkainia), and this is the same word used to describe Hanukkah in the Gospel of John. The evangelist writes, “At that time the Festival of the Dedication (ἐγκαίνια, egkainia) took place in Jerusalem. It was winter, and Jesus was walking in the temple, in the portico of Solomon” (John 10:22-23). Just as 2 Maccabees invokes the dedication of Solomon from 2 Chronicles, the Gospel also mentions “Solomon” alongside the feast of “dedication”—now known throughout the world as Hanukkah.
16. David the Priest
The letter to the Hebrews presents Jesus as a priest. Whereas the Old Testament locates the priestly line with the tribe of LeviSon of Jacob and Leah, brother to Reuben, Simeon, and Dinah. More, the author of Hebrews argues that the Judahite Jesus is part of a non-Levitical priesthood (see Hebrews 7:5-14). Citing Psalm 110:4 (the most quoted Old Testament verse in the New Testament), Hebrews identifies Jesus as “a priest forever according to the order of MelchizedekThe priest-king of Salem encountered by Abraham. More” (Hebrews 5:6; cf. 5:10; 6:20; 7:11, 17). While Hebrews appeals to this alternative priesthood of the mysterious Melchizedek (see Genesis 14:18-24) to position Jesus as a cosmic high priest, a similar point could have been made with attention to David in Chronicles. Though, like Jesus, David was a member of the tribe of Judah, the Chronicler portrays him as a priestly figure who performs various cultic acts. In this way, the portrait of David in Chronicles offers a ready template for the priestly view of Jesus.
When the Chronicler describes the transportation of the ark of the covenantThe ark of the covenant was a box or chest that God commanded the Israelites to make from wood richly adorned with gold. The ark was built to contain the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). The ark served as a mobile shrine to... More to Jerusalem, David is said to be wearing a priestly garment: “David was clothed with a robe of fine linen, as also were all the Levites who were carrying the ark, and the singers, and Chenaniah the leader of the music of the singers, and David wore a linen ephod” (1(1 Chronicles 15:27 NRSVUE). This is a vestment that the Torah reserves for priests (cf. Exodus 28:4-31; Leviticus 8:7), and 1 Samuel mentions it several times in association with priestly activity (cf. 1 Samuel 2:18, 28; 14:3; 23:9; 30:7; cf. Sirach 45:8).
In the narrative of David at the threshing floorA threshing floor is a location where farmers thresh grain. Threshing is the process of beating grain, such as wheat and oats, to separate out the chaff. Some of the action in the book of Ruth takes place on a threshing floor. More of Ornan, the Chronicler notes, “David built there an altar to the Lord and presented burnt offerings and offerings of well-being. He called upon the Lord, and he answered him with fire from heaven on the altar of burnt offering…. At that time, when David saw that the Lord had answered him at the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite, he made his sacrifices there” (1 Chronicles 21:26, 28 NRSVUE). Though some commentators, noting the oddity of a Judahite king fulfilling the role of Levitical priests, speculate that the Chronicler envisions priests making the sacrifices on David’s behalf, the text of 1 Chronicles 21 does not include any such addition. Instead, it says that David “presented burnt offerings” and “made his sacrifices.” Had the Chronicler wished to specify the presence of priests in the story, the author would have had the language to do so, as in 2 Chronicles 29:27, when king “Hezekiah commanded that the burnt offerings be offered on the altar.” Since no such clarification exists in David’s case, readers should assume that the king of Judah serves as a priest in Chronicles. The Chronicler would have had good reason to link David with priestly activity, since 2 Samuel had already noted that “David’s sons were priests” (2 Samuel 8:18). Thus, the priestly portrayal of Jesus, “son of David” (Matthew 1:1), stands on a firm Old Testament foundation.
