Revised by Cory Driver, 9/23
The Book of Samuel as history
Samuel looks like history, but as one reads through it, it becomes obvious that it is very different from the history we are accustomed to reading. Accounts in Chronicles and other biblical sources are sometimes presented differently in Samuel, and are often flatly contradicted. Even within the books of Samuel there are discrepancies and contradictions. This difficult issue is somewhat eased by the recognition that no biblical book is written with contemporary canons of history. Rather than disparage the biblical author’s supposed failure to conform to our ideas of history, we should try to determine the theological motivation in presenting these stories this way.
Canonical setting
The books of Samuel occupy somewhat different places in the Hebrew canonA canon is a general law or principle by which something is judged. The body of literature in the Old and New Testaments is accepted by most Christians as being canonical (that is, authentic and authoritative) for them. and that of modern English Bibles. In the Hebrew Bible the books of Samuel are considered part of the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings). In English Bibles the books of Samuel are considered part of the Historical Books. Ruth has been placed after Judges and before Samuel because of this historical understanding.
Chronology
The chronology of the books of Samuel is a major problem. In general, only approximate dates can be given: the events recorded in Samuel span approximately 100 years; the capture of the ark is usually placed in the middle of the 11th century BCE; Saul reigned as king from 1020-1000 BCE; and David reigned from 1000-960 BCE.
Deuteronomistic HistoryDeuteronomistic history refers to the narrative contained in the books of Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings. This narrative, probably written in the age of Israel’s exile (mid-6th century B.C.E.), recounts Israel’s history prior to the exile. (DtrH)
In 1943, Martin Noth argued that the books from Joshua through Kings (excluding Ruth, which is part of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible) formed a single literary and theological work. It presented the history of Israel from the Exodus from Egypt to the Babylonian exile, based upon the theological perspectives of the Book of Deuteronomy. While subsequent debate regarding the date and editing of this extensive work continues, many scholars think there were at least two separate editions–one in the seventh century BCE during the reign of Josiah, which emphasized the unconditional nature of the promise and a positive view of kingship, and one in the sixth century, during the exile, when the conditional nature of the covenantA covenant is a promise or agreement. In the Bible the promises made between God and God’s people are known as covenants; they state or imply a relationship of commitment and obedience. and a negative view of the monarchy due to the failure of Israel’s kings had become painfully evident. The history was written to explain why Israel had experienced exile; it traced the downfall of Israel and Judah to the people’s apostasy and failure to obey the covenantal stipulations as presented in Deuteronomy and God’s consequent handing them over into the hands of the Assyrians and the Babylonians.
Doublets
Samuel has an unusual number of “doublets,” instances where the same story seems to be told twice, sometimes in different circumstances or with conflicting results. Most of these doublets are in 1 Samuel (see the list of doublets there); the following are in 2 Samuel:
- Goliath killed by David…and by Elhanan (1 Samuel 17:49; 2 Samuel 21:19)
- Saul falls on his sword and is slain by an Amalekite (1 Samuel 31:4; 2 Samuel 1:10)
- Absalom has three sons and no son (2 Samuel 14:27; 18:18)
Historicity of David
The rather large number of discrepancies and inconsistencies in the text of Samuel and Kings has suggested to some recent historians that the so-called “United Kingdom” of Saul, David, and Solomon, as well as these individuals, never existed. For these historians, what we have in the books of Samuel and 1 Kings 1-11 is, rather, a fictionalized account, put together in the postexilic period, to encourage the politically demoralized exiles in Babylon or the recently returned people of Judah. Most scholars, however, reject this “minimalist” view. Their decision to do so has been strengthened by the archaeological discovery and recent reexamination of the Moabite Stone of King Mesha and the late 20th century discovery of an inscription at Tel Dan, both dating to the ninth century BCE, which refer to the “house [that is, “the dynasty”] of David.”
Parallels with 1 Chronicles
There are extensive parallels between Samuel and 1 Chronicles because the Chronicler used the books of Samuel (and 1-2 Kings) as his primary source. The most important of these parallel passages in 2 Samuel follow:
2 Samuel; 1 Chronicles
- David’s Children
2 Samuel 3:2-5; 5:14-16 1 Chronicles 3:1-9 - David Becomes King
2 Samuel 5:1-3, 6-10 1 Chronicles 11:1-9 - David’s Mighty Warriors
2 Samuel 23:8-39 1 Chronicles 11:10-47 - Moving the Ark
2 Samuel 6:1-11 1 Chronicles 13:1-14 - David Prepping for TempleThe Jerusalem temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent structure, although (like the tabernacle) it was a place of worship and religious activity. On one occasion Jesus felt such activity was unacceptable and, as reported in all four Gospels, drove from the temple those engaged… and Fighting Philistines
2 Samuel 5:11-16, 17-25 1 Chronicles 14:1-7; 8-17 - Building a Temple
2 Samuel 6:12-23 15; 16 7:1-29 1 Chronicles 17:1-27 - David’s Victories
2 Samuel 8:1-18 1 Chronicles 18:1-17 - Defeating Ammon
2 Samuel 10:1-19 1 Chronicles 19:1-19 - Capture of Rabbah
2 Samuel 11:1; 12:26-31 1 Chronicles 20:1-3 - Death of the Giants
2 Samuel 21:18-22 1 Chronicles 20:4-8 - David’s Census
2 Samuel 24:1-25 1 Chronicles 21:1-31
The Philistines
Throughout the books of Samuel, Israel’s greatest threat came from the Philistines, a people from islands in the Aegean Sea who settled along the southern coast of Canaan after being repelled by Ramses III in a series of sea battles in the Nile Delta (1190 BCE). There, they occupied some of the region’s richest land and controlled the lucrative coastal trade route. The Philistines’ military success is directly attributable to their monopoly in the manufacture and use of iron weapons (1 Samuel 13:19-22). In the absence of any written records, the probably pejorative biblical account of the Philistines becomes determinative. In the Bible, the Philistines are depicted as warlike, rather coarse, and uncircumcised; they worshipped Dagon as their national god in addition to other Canaanite deities such as Atargatis and Baal-zebub. Politically, they were organized as a federation under five “Serens” (Greek, tyrannoi, “tyrants”), who ruled in their five major cities (Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza). The Greek historian Herodotus named the whole area “Palestine” after the Greek form of their name (palestina, 450 BCE).
Sources in Samuel
A number of sources or traditions may lie behind the books of Samuel. The following have been variously analyzed by scholars but their general extent is recognized by many:
- boyhood stories of Samuel (1 Samuel 1-3)
- an ark narrative (1 Samuel 4:1-7:2; possibly connected to 2 Samuel 6:1-5)
- negative stories about Saul, or monarchy, or both, associated with Mizpah (1 Samuel 7:3-12; 8:1-22; 10:17-27; 12:1-25; 15:1-35)
- positive stories about Saul, or monarchy, or both, associated with Gilgal (1 Samuel 9:1-10:16; 13:1-14:46; possibly 1 Samuel 11; 15; 28; 31)
- the so-called “Court History/Succession Narrative” (2 Samuel 9-20; 1 Kings 1-2)
- an “Appendix,” added to the “Succession Narrative” above, consisting of two narratives, two lists, and two poems (2 Samuel 21-24)
- various lists and archival material, including Saul’s family (1 Samuel 14:47-52), David’s sons born at Hebron (2 Samuel 3:2-5), David’s sons born in Jerusalem (5:13-16), David’s cabinet (8:15-18), a second listing of David’s cabinet (20:23-26), David’s warriors (23:8-19), and a second listing of David’s warriors (23:24-39).
What kind of book is Samuel?
Recent interpretation rejects the designation “history” for Samuel, at least in its modern connotation of that which is produced by a critical historian as a factual description of events in the past. Designations such as “historical story” or “theological interpretation of history” are much more common. Clearly there is a telling, or retelling, of the story in a chronological sequence, whether accurate or imposed. The authors/compilers freely rewrote, edited, and fashioned materials and traditions of varying types into a coherent presentation of the monarchy designed to make a theological point.
Why are there two books of Samuel?
Originally the books of Samuel were a single work. The Masoretic notes at the end of 2 Samuel give a total of 1,506 verses for both books and indicate that 1 Samuel 28:24 is the middle verse of the book (singular in Hebrew). Samuel was divided into two books when it was translated into Greek. The Greek translation actually includes the books of Kings as well, as indicated by the titling of Samuel-Kings as 1-4 Basileiai (1-4 Kingdoms/Reigns). This larger context is crucial and must be kept in mind at all times.
